http://www.nanoscience.gatech.edu/paper/2012/12_NE_04.pdf

Flexible triboelectric generator

Multilevel converters have been under research and development for more than three decades and have found successful industrial application. However, this is still a technology under development, and many new contributions and new commercial topologies have been reported in the last few years. The aim of this paper is to group and review these recent contributions, in order to establish the current state of the art and trends of the technology, to provide readers with a comprehensive and insightful review of where multilevel converter technology stands and is heading. This paper first presents a brief overview of well-established multilevel converters strongly oriented to their current state in industrial applications to then center the discussion on the new converters that have made their way into the industry. In addition, new promising topologies are discussed. Recent advances made in modulation and control of multilevel converters are also addressed. A great part of this paper is devoted to show nontraditional applications powered by multilevel converters and how multilevel converters are becoming an enabling technology in many industrial sectors. Finally, some future trends and challenges in the further development of this technology are discussed to motivate future contributions that address open problems and explore new possibilities.

/pdf/recent-advances-and-industrial-applications-of-multilevel-26fluutoc9.pdf

Recent Advances and Industrial Applications of Multilevel Converters

This paper reviews the state-of-the art in vibration energy harvesting for wireless, self-powered microsystems. Vibration-powered generators are typically, although not exclusively, inertial spring and mass systems. The characteristic equations for inertial-based generators are presented, along with the specific damping equations that relate to the three main transduction mechanisms employed to extract energy from the system. These transduction mechanisms are: piezoelectric, electromagnetic and electrostatic. Piezoelectric generators employ active materials that generate a charge when mechanically stressed. A comprehensive review of existing piezoelectric generators is presented, including impact coupled, resonant and human-based devices. Electromagnetic generators employ electromagnetic induction arising from the relative motion between a magnetic flux gradient and a conductor. Electromagnetic generators presented in the literature are reviewed including large scale discrete devices and wafer-scale integrated versions. Electrostatic generators utilize the relative movement between electrically isolated charged capacitor plates to generate energy. The work done against the electrostatic force between the plates provides the harvested energy. Electrostatic-based generators are reviewed under the classifications of in-plane overlap varying, in-plane gap closing and out-of-plane gap closing; the Coulomb force parametric generator and electret-based generators are also covered. The coupling factor of each transduction mechanism is discussed and all the devices presented in the literature are summarized in tables classified by transduction type; conclusions are drawn as to the suitability of the various techniques.

/pdf/energy-harvesting-vibration-sources-for-microsystems-46t885pwdp.pdf

Energy harvesting vibration sources for microsystems applications

Energy management means to optimize one of the most complex and important technical creations that we know: the energy system. While there is plenty of experience in optimizing energy generation and distribution, it is the demand side that receives increasing attention by research and industry. Demand Side Management (DSM) is a portfolio of measures to improve the energy system at the side of consumption. It ranges from improving energy efficiency by using better materials, over smart energy tariffs with incentives for certain consumption patterns, up to sophisticated real-time control of distributed energy resources. This paper gives an overview and a taxonomy for DSM, analyzes the various types of DSM, and gives an outlook on the latest demonstration projects in this domain.

/pdf/demand-side-management-demand-response-intelligent-energy-27yx5jmy0a.pdf

Demand Side Management: Demand Response, Intelligent Energy Systems, and Smart Loads

The enabling of ac microgrids in distribution networks allows delivering distributed power and providing grid support services during regular operation of the grid, as well as powering isolated islands in case of faults and contingencies, thus increasing the performance and reliability of the electrical system. The high penetration of distributed generators, linked to the grid through highly controllable power processors based on power electronics, together with the incorporation of electrical energy storage systems, communication technologies, and controllable loads, opens new horizons to the effective expansion of microgrid applications integrated into electrical power systems. This paper carries out an overview about microgrid structures and control techniques at different hierarchical levels. At the power converter level, a detailed analysis of the main operation modes and control structures for power converters belonging to microgrids is carried out, focusing mainly on grid-forming, grid-feeding, and grid-supporting configurations. This analysis is extended as well toward the hierarchical control scheme of microgrids, which, based on the primary, secondary, and tertiary control layer division, is devoted to minimize the operation cost, coordinating support services, meanwhile maximizing the reliability and the controllability of microgrids. Finally, the main grid services that microgrids can offer to the main network, as well as the future trends in the development of their operation and control for the next future, are presented and discussed.

Control of Power Converters in AC Microgrids

The analysis of the small-signal stability of conventional power systems is well established, but for inverter based microgrids there is a need to establish how circuit and control features give rise to particular oscillatory modes and which of these have poor damping. This paper develops the modeling and analysis of autonomous operation of inverter-based microgrids. Each sub-module is modeled in state-space form and all are combined together on a common reference frame. The model captures the detail of the control loops of the inverter but not the switching action. Some inverter modes are found at relatively high frequency and so a full dynamic model of the network (rather than an algebraic impedance model) is used. The complete model is linearized around an operating point and the resulting system matrix is used to derive the eigenvalues. The eigenvalues (termed "modes") indicate the frequency and damping of oscillatory components in the transient response. A sensitivity analysis is also presented which helps identifying the origin of each of the modes and identify possible feedback signals for design of controllers to improve the system stability. With experience it is possible to simplify the model (reduce the order) if particular modes are not of interest as is the case with synchronous machine models. Experimental results from a microgrid of three 10-kW inverters are used to verify the results obtained from the model

Modeling, Analysis and Testing of Autonomous Operation of an Inverter-Based Microgrid

Energy harvesting generators are attractive as inexhaustible replacements for batteries in low-power wireless electronic devices and have received increasing research interest in recent years. Ambient motion is one of the main sources of energy for harvesting, and a wide range of motion-powered energy harvesters have been proposed or demonstrated, particularly at the microscale. This paper reviews the principles and state-of-art in motion-driven miniature energy harvesters and discusses trends, suitable applications, and possible future developments.

/pdf/energy-harvesting-from-human-and-machine-motion-for-wireless-3lsf4oudvo.pdf

Energy Harvesting From Human and Machine Motion for Wireless Electronic Devices

Several forms of vibration-driven MEMS microgenerator are possible and are reported in the literature, with potential application areas including distributed sensing and ubiquitous computing. This paper sets out an analytical basis for their design and comparison, verified against full time-domain simulations. Most reported microgenerators are classified as either velocity-damped resonant generators (VDRGs) or Coulomb-damped resonant generators (CDRGs) and a unified analytical structure is provided for these generator types. Reported generators are shown to have operated at well below achievable power densities and design guides are given for optimising future devices. The paper also describes a new class-the Coulomb-force parametric generator (CFPG)-which does not operate in a resonant manner. For all three generators, expressions and graphs are provided showing the dependence of output power on key operating parameters. The optimization also considers physical generator constraints such as voltage limitation or maximum or minimum damping ratios. The sensitivity of each generator architecture to the source vibration frequency is analyzed and this shows that the CFPG can be better suited than the resonant generators to applications where the source frequency is likely to vary. It is demonstrated that mechanical resonance is particularly useful when the vibration source amplitude is small compared to the allowable mass-to-frame displacement. The CDRG and the VDRG generate the same power at resonance but give better performance below and above resonance respectively. Both resonant generator types are unable to operate when the allowable mass frame displacement is small compared to the vibration source amplitude, as is likely to be the case in some MEMS applications. The CFPG is, therefore, required for such applications.

https://spiral.imperial.ac.uk:8443/bitstream/10044/1/997/1/Architectures%20for%20vibration-driven.pdf

Architectures for vibration-driven micropower generators

This paper presents an energy management system (EMS) for a stand-alone droop-controlled microgrid, which adjusts generators output power to minimize fuel consumption and also ensures stable operation. It has previously been shown that frequency-droop gains have a significant effect on stability in such microgrids. Relationship between these parameters and stability margins are therefore identified, using qualitative analysis and small-signal techniques. This allows them to be selected to ensure stability. Optimized generator outputs are then implemented in real-time by the EMS, through adjustments to droop characteristics within this constraint. Experimental results from a laboratory-sized microgrid confirm the EMS function.

https://spiral.imperial.ac.uk:8443/bitstream/10044/1/15430/2/IEEE%20Transactions%20on%20Power%20Electronics_23_5_2008.pdf

Energy Management in Autonomous Microgrid Using Stability-Constrained Droop Control of Inverters

This paper describes the analysis, simulation and testing of a microengineered motion-driven power generator, suitable for application in sensors within or worn on the human body. Micro-generators capable of powering sensors have previously been reported, but these have required high frequency mechanical vibrations to excite a resonant structure. However, body-driven movements are slow and irregular, with large displacements, and hence do not effectively couple energy into such generators. The device presented here uses an alternative, non-resonant operating mode. Analysis of this generator shows its potential for the application considered, and shows the possibility to optimise the design for particular conditions. An experimental prototype based on a variable parallel-plate capacitor operating in constant charge mode is described which confirms the analysis and simulation models. This prototype, when precharged to 30 V, develops an output voltage of 250 V, corresponding to 0.3J per cycle. The experimental test procedure and the instrumentation are also described.

/pdf/mems-electrostatic-micropower-generator-for-low-frequency-pcywa0q5az.pdf

Timothy C. Green

Papers

Modeling, Analysis and Testing of Autonomous Operation of an Inverter-Based Microgrid

Energy Harvesting From Human and Machine Motion for Wireless Electronic Devices

Architectures for vibration-driven micropower generators

Energy Management in Autonomous Microgrid Using Stability-Constrained Droop Control of Inverters

MEMS electrostatic micropower generator for low frequency operation