Prototyping is interwoven with nearly all product, service, and systems development efforts. A prototype is a pre-production representation of some aspect of a concept or final design. Prototyping often predetermines a large portion of resource deployment in development and influences design project success. This review surveys literature sources in engineering, management, design science, and architecture. The study is focused around design prototyping for early stage design. Insights are synthesized from critical review of the literature: key objectives of prototyping, critical review of major techniques, relationships between techniques, and a strategy matrix to connect objectives to techniques. The review is supported with exemplar prototypes provided from industrial design efforts. Techniques are roughly categorized into those that improve the outcomes of prototyping directly, and those that enable prototyping through lowering of cost and time. Compact descriptions of each technique provide a foundation to compare the potential benefits and drawbacks of each. The review concludes with a summary of key observations, highlighted opportunities in the research, and a vision of the future of prototyping. This review aims to provide a resource for designers as well as set a trajectory for continuing innovation in the scientific research of design prototyping.

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Design prototyping methods: state of the art in strategies, techniques, and guidelines

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“Imagined Communities” in Showcases: The Nationality Rooms Program at The University of Pittsburgh (1926-1945)

The turn towards cultural analysis among historians in Europe and the United States emerged in the 1970s, when the new social-science-oriented history began to lose ground to methods drawn from anthropological, linguistic, and literary theory. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the discrediting of Marxist-style historical materialism reinforced this trend. The vector of explanation has been inverted (or, Marx would say, returned to where he found it). Historians are likely now to view culture not as a reflection of underlying social structures and power relations but as the origin of political styles and even as the guiding force of national destinies. As a system of values, signs, and conventions, culture provides the circuit board for personal as well as collective experience and the software for individual as well as national self-expression. Cultural formations are both stable and changing: they persist over time but can also signal moments of rupture. Culture seems therefore to offer a strategic point of entry for historical research.1 But there are dangers in taking this route. If we regard the structuring relationships of culture as fundamental, we may reduce our capacity to identify or understand historical change.2 The cultural turn also runs the risk of circularity. Seeing “culture” everywhere, we cannot decide where it begins and ends and therefore what distinguishes it from what it is not. Is the cultural approach a flight from the tough questions of institutions and power? Are terms such as “representation” and “discourse” evasive maneuvers that substitute metaphor for the analysis of “real forces”? Or is the cultural approach a bold attempt to identify power relations where they have been ignored – in forms of knowledge and expertise, symbols and images, which organize the process of civic life and even the texture of personal experience? Do the culturalists renounce the

Culture, Culture Everywhere: Interpretations of Modern Russia, across the 1991 Divide

In 1911 Vasily Kandinsky published the first edition of ‘On the Spiritual in Art’, a landmark modernist treatise in which he sought to reframe the meaning of art and the true role of the artist. For many artists of late Imperial Russia – a culture deeply influenced by the regime’s adoption of Byzantine Orthodoxy centuries before – questions of religion and spirituality were of paramount importance. As artists and the wider art community experimented with new ideas and interpretations at the dawn of the twentieth century, their relationship with ‘the spiritual’ – broadly defined – was inextricably linked to their roles as pioneers of modernism. This diverse collection of essays introduces new and stimulating approaches to the ongoing debate as to how Russian artistic modernism engaged with questions of spirituality in the late nineteenth to mid-twentieth centuries. Ten chapters from emerging and established voices offer new perspectives on Kandinsky and other familiar names, such as Kazimir Malevich, Mikhail Larionov, and Natalia Goncharova, and introduce less well-known figures, such as the Georgian artists Ucha Japaridze and Lado Gudiashvili, and the craftswoman and art promoter Aleksandra Pogosskaia. Prefaced by a lively and informative introduction by Louise Hardiman and Nicola Kozicharow that sets these perspectives in their historical and critical context, Modernism and the Spiritual in Russian Art: New Perspectives enriches our understanding of the modernist period and breaks new ground in its re-examination of the role of religion and spirituality in the visual arts in late Imperial Russia. Of interest to historians and enthusiasts of Russian art, culture, and religion, and those of international modernism and the avant-garde, it offers innovative readings of a history only partially explored, revealing uncharted corners and challenging long-held assumptions.

Modernism and the Spiritual in Russian Art: New Perspectives

Principles of maker and DIY fabrication: Enabling design prototypes at low cost

Description Arts and Crafts in Late Imperial Russia is the first account of the revival of Russia's kustar art industriespeasant crafts of wood carving, toy production, lacemaking, embroidery, and weaving from its origins in the populist debates and philanthropic impulses of the early 1870s to its climax in 1913, with the display of its achievements at the Second All-Russian Kustar Exhibition in St. Petersburg. Like every Western nation in the late nineteenth century Russia experienced a widespread movement to revive its traditional arts and crafts. This study uncovers the complex motivations that led a broad cross section of educated Russian society to devote their money, energy, and artistic skills to save kustar arts and crafts from extinction by adapting them to satisfy the tastes of a new, well-to-do urban consumer.

https://digitalcommons.chapman.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=art_books

Arts and Crafts in Late Imperial Russia: Reviving the Kustar Art Industries

Ellis H. Minns and Nikodim Kondakov’s The Russian Icon (1927)

As we watch the end of our century loom closer on the horizon, the discovery of broad historical and psychological parallels with the last generation to undergo such an experience has become both a comfort and an object lesson. Among the ways in which our contemporary fin-de-siecle angst echoes that of ca. 1900 is a shared forboding that the world as we know it is about to disappear, and that a frustrating ambivalence as to what we can do about it. This sense of deja vu is particularly strong when we compare our present unabated enthusiasm for ethnic or folk crafts in this increasingly homogeneous world with the arts and crafts revivals of the late nineteenth century.] Revivals are almost, by definition, one-sided affairs, whereby the living make their own selective use of the past and its artifacts (e.g., neoclassicism, Gothic Revival). But the folk or vernacular craft revivals that emerged throughout Europe, Great Britain, and the United States at the end of the nineteenth century were exceptions in that they depended on the conjunction of two living cultures-an educated, cosmopolitan intelligentsia (artists, philanthropists, entrepreneurs) and a romanticized but very much alive "folk" (peasantry, indigenous peoples). As the heirs to cultural traditions threatened with extinction by the modern age, the latter were enlisted by the former as partners in innumerable campaigns to save and resuscitate crafts that might otherwise have quietly disappeared onto the dustheap of history. At once grandly utopian and eminently pragmatic in scope, such revivals went far beyond the confines of borrowing design motifs from bygone eras and exotic peoples. Rooted in a belief that folk culture was a dynamic organism capable of growth and adaptation, rather than a dead style, they operated on quite a different model-one of give and take and mutual selfinterest. The process might begin, as in other revivals, with artists borrowing raw material from "the folk" (usually in the form of ornament) for their own design experiments, but it rarely stopped there. Having passed these precious elements of a potential national design vocabulary through the purifying filter of their own tasteinformed by a professional art education and a familiarity with European trends-artists and craft reformers felt morally bound to reinvest these borrowed cultural riches back into their source communities, by employing modern-day "folk" as the producers of For a panoramic view of craft revivals, see Nicola Gordon Bowe, ed., Art and the National Dream: The Search for Vemacular Expression in Tum-of-theCentury Design (Dublin, University of Dublin Press, 1993).

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A Matter of Give and Take: Peasant Crafts and Their Revival in Late Imperial Russia

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How America Discovered Russian Icons: The Soviet Loan Exhibition of 1930-32

Of the three major industrial art schools operating in Russia on the eve of the 1917 Revolution, the Imperial Central Stroganov School of Technical Design in Moscow was the oldest, the most innovative, and the most controversial.1 The Stroganov School was the first art institution in Russia to confront the daunting problems of molding consumer taste and of improving manufactured goods aesthetically by providing the Empire's factories, workshops, and schools with well-trained industrial artists. For over half a century, it blazed a trail for other industrial art schools to follow, as its museum facilities, curriculum, publications, exhibitions, workshops, and factory internships all demonstrated a thoughtful and imaginative adaptation of modern Western ideas to local conditions. Above all, the Stroganov was known for championing a distinctively Russian style in manufactured objects, its mission being to wean Russian consumers from what was considered their inordinate love of foreign products while at the same time opening up new markets for Russian goods abroad. None of these goals was at all unique to Russia, of course. That the national economy of any industrializing nation could benefit from the injection of aesthetics and the marks of national distinctiveness into various manufacturing sectors was an accepted fact by the mid-nineteenth century, and the proliferation of industrial art schools throughout Europe, England, and America acknowledged the role that art education was believed capable of playing in economic life. What made the Stroganov School's mission so unusual, and so problematic, was the matrix of social, cultural, and economic factors in which it operated. Allocated a central part in the creation of a new Russian producer and consumer, the Stroganov came face to face with long-standing issues of Russian identity that it was powerless to resolve. In its efforts to forge a stylistic compromise between Russian and European culture (the so-called Stroganov style was essentially a Russian variant of Art Nouveau), the school involuntarily exacerbated the tensions that arose when a traditional agrarian culture confronted the demands of modern industrial society.

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Wendy Salmond

Papers

Arts and Crafts in Late Imperial Russia: Reviving the Kustar Art Industries

Ellis H. Minns and Nikodim Kondakov’s The Russian Icon (1927)

A Matter of Give and Take: Peasant Crafts and Their Revival in Late Imperial Russia

How America Discovered Russian Icons: The Soviet Loan Exhibition of 1930-32

Design Education and the Quest for National Identity in Late Imperial Russia: The Case of the Stroganov School