U.S. Army Counterinsurgency and Contingency Operations Doctrine 1860-1941

Introduction 1. The Evolving Practice and Meaning of Military Occupation 2. Defining Occupation 3. Forms of Military Government 4. The Role of Civilian Governors in Military Occupation 5. Occupation and Obligation 6. Sovereignty and Occupation 7. Justice under Occupation 8. Occupation and Regime Transformation Conclusion Select Bibliography Index.

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The Politics of Military Occupation

The contemporary international law of occupation, which regulates the conduct of occupying forces during wartime, was framed over the course of deliberations among European governments during the second half of the nineteenth century. The debates between representatives of strong and weak powers on this matter dominated the conferences in Brussels (1874) and The Hague (1899), whose goal was to formulate the laws of war through an international agreement. The outcome, enshrined in what is known as the Hague Regulations of 1899,1 represented a delicate balance that both provided protection for a civilian population brought under the control of an occupant and safeguarded the interests of the ousted government for the duration of the occupation. Occupation was conceived of as a temporary regime existing until the conclusion of a peace agreement between the enemy sides (unless the defeated party ceased to exist as a result of the war, a situation referred to as debellatio). The evolution of the law of occupation in the nineteenth century was a gradual process, shaped by changing conceptions about war and sovereignty, as well as by the balance of power emerging in Europe.

The Origins of the Concept of Belligerent Occupation

Introduction 1. 'The president's personal policy' 2. The decision for Torch 3. Keeping Spain out of the war: Washington's appeasement of Franco 4. Torch, Darlan, and the French Maghreb 5. 'The intricacies of colonial rule' 6. 'Senior partners?' 7. 'An investment for the future' 8. The Tehran Conference and the Anglo-American struggle over the invasion of southern France 9. Helping De Gaulle get his 'talons pretty deeply dug into France' 10. Italy 'enters the postwar period' 11. Spain, Wolfram, and the 'liberal turn' 12. The Culbertson Mission and the open door 13. 'Balkan-phobia?' The United States, Yugoslavia, and Greece, 1940-5 14. 'We have become Mediterraneanites'.

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American Grand Strategy in the Mediterranean during World War II

: Preface This work is general by design and was prepared to provide some insight into the US Constabulary forces that were formed after the end of World War II. Straightforward and to the point, my intent is to showcase the planning of postwar operations and to outline the organization formed to meet the needs of the times. The establishment of a formal constabulary was without precedent in the history of the US Army. After most wars, various units were assigned missions or undertook operations to pacify conquered areas with varying degrees of success. The US Constabulary was radically different. In this instance entire regiments and divisions were dramatically reorganized and rearmed to meet new mission requirements. Personnel who had been trained as artillerymen, engineers, or in some other field found themselves retrained as military policemen. Unit lineage often changed or disappeared altogether. The men of the US Constabulary were the elite of their day. Carefully screened and tested, those who did not make the cut were eliminated. Both Americans and Germans who saw the distinctive uniform and insignia of the US Constabulary knew they were dealing with trained professionals.

William E. Birkhimer

Papers

Military government and martial law

Military Government and Martial Law