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Using Multivariate Statistics

Part I. Experimental Studies: 2. Experiment in psychology 3. Experiments on perceiving III Experiments on imaging 4-8. Experiments on remembering: (a) The method of description (b) The method of repeated reproduction (c) The method of picture writing (d) The method of serial reproduction (e) The method of serial reproduction picture material 9. Perceiving, recognizing, remembering 10. A theory of remembering 11. Images and their functions 12. Meaning Part II. Remembering as a Study in Social Psychology: 13. Social psychology 14. Social psychology and the matter of recall 15. Social psychology and the manner of recall 16. Conventionalism 17. The notion of a collective unconscious 18. The basis of social recall 19. A summary and some conclusions.

Remembering. A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology, Cambridge (University Press) 1964.

The power of feedback.

First, we propose a theory of multimedia learning based on the assumptions that humans possess separate systems for processing pictorial and verbal material (dual-channel assumption), each channel is limited in the amount of material that can be processed at one time (limited-capacity assumption), and meaningful learning involves cognitive processing including building connections between pictorial and verbal representations (active-processing assumption). Second, based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, we examine the concept of cognitive overload in which the learner's intended cognitive processing exceeds the learner's available cognitive capacity. Third, we examine five overload scenarios. For each overload scenario, we offer one or two theory-based suggestions for reducing cognitive load, and we summarize our research results aimed at testing the effectiveness of each suggestion. Overall, our analysis shows that cognitive load is a central consideration in the design of multimedia instru...

/pdf/nine-ways-to-reduce-cognitive-load-in-multimedia-learning-1179eatzge.pdf

Nine Ways to Reduce Cognitive Load in Multimedia Learning

A wide variety of media can be used in learning, including distance learning, such as print, lectures, conference sections, tutors, pictures, video, sound, and computers. Any one instance of distance learning will make choices among these media, perhaps using several.

Multimedia in Learning

https://www.raypastore.com/knowledge/courses/545/schontz_2003_represenations.pdf

Construction and interference in learning from multiple representation

Cognitive load theory has been very influential in educational psychology during the last decade in providing guidelines for instructional design. Whereas numerous empirical studies have used it as a theoretical framework, a closer analysis reveals some fundamental conceptual problems within the theory. Various generalizations of empirical findings become questionable because the theory allows different and contradicting possibilities to explain some empirical results. The article investigates these theoretical problems by analyzing the conceptual distinctions between different kinds of cognitive load. It emphasizes that reduction of cognitive load can sometimes impair learning rather than enhancing it. Cognitive load theory is reconsidered both from the perspective of Vygotski’s concept of the zone of proximal development and from the perspective of research on implicit learning. Task performance and learning are considered as related, but nevertheless fundamentally different processes. Conclusions are drawn for the further development of the theory as well as for empirical research and instructional practice.

http://blog.ncue.edu.tw/sys/lib/read_attach.php?id=60

A Reconsideration of Cognitive Load Theory

Abstract This chapter presents an integrated model of text and picture comprehension that takes into account that learners can use multiple sensory modalities. The model encompasses reading comprehension, listening comprehension, visual picture comprehension, and sound comprehension (i.e., auditory picture comprehension). The model's cognitive architecture consists of sensory registers, working memory, and long-term memory. It furthermore includes a cognitive level and a perceptual level. The cognitive level is characterized by two representational channels: a verbal channel and a pictorial channel. The perceptual level is characterized by multiple sensory channels. After presenting the model, the chapter derives predictions, which can be empirically tested. It reports research findings that can be explained by the model, and it derives practical suggestions for instructional design. Finally, the chapter discusses limitations of the model and points out directions for further research. Introduction The term multimedia means different things on different levels. On the level of technology, it means the use of multiple delivery media such as computers, screens, and loudspeakers. On the level of presentation formats, it means the use of different forms of representation such as texts and pictures. On the level of sensory modalities, it means the use of multiple senses such as the eye and the ear. The level of technology is of course very important in practice, but it is not of high interest from a psychological point of view, because comprehension is not fundamentally different when a text passage is delivered either by a computer screen or by a printed book, or if a picture is presented by a poster or by a slide.

The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning: An Integrated Model of Text and Picture Comprehension

Visuo-spatial text adjuncts such as static or animated pictures, geographic maps, thematic maps, graphs, and knowledge maps that have been analyzed in the articles contained in this special issue provide complex pictorial information that complements the verbal information of texts. These spatial text adjuncts are considered as depictive representations that can support communication, thinking, and learning. An essential precondition of this supportive function is that the visuo-spatial displays interact appropriately with human visual perception and the individual's cognitive system, which is characterized by prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and learning skills. Accordingly, effective learning with visuo-spatial text adjuncts can be fostered by instructional design and by adequate processing strategies, both dependent on sufficient understanding of how the human cognitive system interacts with these displays. Perspectives for further research in this area are provided.

Commentary: Towards an Integrated View of Learning from Text and Visual Displays

New technologies allow the display of text, static visuals, and animations. Although animations are inherently attractive, they are not always beneficial for learning. Problems may arise especially when animations modify the learner's cognitive load in an unintended way. In two learning experiments with 40 and 26 university students, the effects of animated pictures on knowledge acquisition were investigated. Some pictures displayed visual simulations of changes over time, whereas other pictures could be manipulated by learners to represent different states in time. Results showed that manipulation pictures had an enabling function for individuals with high learning prerequisites, whereas simulation pictures had a facilitating function for individuals with low learning prerequisites. However, the facilitating function was not beneficial for learning, because learners were prevented from performing relevant cognitive processes on their own. A careful analysis of the interrelation between different kinds of cognitive load and the process of learning is therefore required.

http://www.anitacrawley.net/Resources/Articles/Schnoltz%20Enabling%20Facilitating%20and%20Inhibiting%20Effects%20of.pdf

Enabling, facilitating, and inhibiting effects of animations in multimedia learning: Why reduction of cognitive load can have negative results on learning

Wolfgang Schnotz

Papers

Construction and interference in learning from multiple representation

A Reconsideration of Cognitive Load Theory

The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning: An Integrated Model of Text and Picture Comprehension

Commentary: Towards an Integrated View of Learning from Text and Visual Displays

Enabling, facilitating, and inhibiting effects of animations in multimedia learning: Why reduction of cognitive load can have negative results on learning