2.1. Solvents 4307 2.1.1. Propylene Carbonate (PC) 4308 2.1.2. Ethers 4308 2.1.3. Ethylene Carbonate (EC) 4309 2.1.4. Linear Dialkyl Carbonates 4310 2.2. Lithium Salts 4310 2.2.1. Lithium Perchlorate (LiClO4) 4311 2.2.2. Lithium Hexafluoroarsenate (LiAsF6) 4312 2.2.3. Lithium Tetrafluoroborate (LiBF4) 4312 2.2.4. Lithium Trifluoromethanesulfonate (LiTf) 4312 2.2.5. Lithium Bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiIm) and Its Derivatives 4313

/pdf/nonaqueous-liquid-electrolytes-for-lithium-based-uxm5ffbi18.pdf

Nonaqueous liquid electrolytes for lithium-based rechargeable batteries.

In the previous paper Ralph Brodd and Martin Winter described the different kinds of batteries and fuel cells. In this paper I will describe lithium batteries in more detail, building an overall foundation for the papers that follow which describe specific components in some depth and usually with an emphasis on the materials behavior. The lithium battery industry is undergoing rapid expansion, now representing the largest segment of the portable battery industry and dominating the computer, cell phone, and camera power source industry. However, the present secondary batteries use expensive components, which are not in sufficient supply to allow the industry to grow at the same rate in the next decade. Moreover, the safety of the system is questionable for the large-scale batteries needed for hybrid electric vehicles (HEV). Another battery need is for a high-power system that can be used for power tools, where only the environmentally hazardous Ni/ Cd battery presently meets the requirements. A battery is a transducer that converts chemical energy into electrical energy and vice versa. It contains an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte. The anode, in the case of a lithium battery, is the source of lithium ions. The cathode is the sink for the lithium ions and is chosen to optimize a number of parameters, discussed below. The electrolyte provides for the separation of ionic transport and electronic transport, and in a perfect battery the lithium ion transport number will be unity in the electrolyte. The cell potential is determined by the difference between the chemical potential of the lithium in the anode and cathode, ∆G ) -EF. As noted above, the lithium ions flow through the electrolyte whereas the electrons generated from the reaction, Li ) Li+ + e-, go through the external circuit to do work. Thus, the electrode system must allow for the flow of both lithium ions and electrons. That is, it must be both a good ionic conductor and an electronic conductor. As discussed below, many electrochemically active materials are not good electronic conductors, so it is necessary to add an electronically conductive material such as carbon * To whom correspondence should be addressed. Phone and fax: (607) 777-4623. E-mail: stanwhit@binghamton.edu. 4271 Chem. Rev. 2004, 104, 4271−4301

http://www.chemie.uni-regensburg.de/Anorganische_Chemie/Vortrag/StudentenWS06-07/Vortrag_Amereller.pdf

Lithium Batteries and Cathode Materials

Research Development on Sodium-Ion Batteries

https://las493energy.files.wordpress.com/2014/11/2005_vetter_jpowsourc.pdf

Ageing mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries

Metal Oxides and Oxysalts as Anode Materials for Li Ion Batteries

Electrochemical reduction of natural graphite was carried out in 1M LiClO[sub 4] ethylene carbonate (EC)/1,2-dimethoxyethane (DME) solution at 30 C. Natural graphite was reduced stepwise to LiC[sub 6]. The staging phenomenon was observed by X-ray diffraction (XRD). The first stage and the second stage compounds were identified as a commensurate structure in which lithium atoms form a close-packed two-dimensional array. A second-stage compound (LiC[sub 18]) with a different in-plane lithium ordering based on a LiC[sub 9] two-dimensional packing in lithium intercalated sheets also was observed; also third, fourth-stage compounds were identified. The electrochemical oxidation of the first-stage compound (LiC[sub 6]) was examined and shown to reversible over the entire range, i.e., C[sub 6] + xLi [r reversible] Li[sub x]C[sub 6]. The reaction mechanism for the reduction of graphite and the oxidation of the first-stage compound are discussed in relation to the staging phenomenon from the detailed open-circuit voltage and XRD data. The chemical potential of LiC[sub 6] was estimated to be [minus]3.6 kcal mol from the observed reversible potential. The feasibility of using a lithium-graphite intercalation compound in lithium ion (shuttlecock) cells is described, and the innovative secondary systems, C[sub 6]/LiCoO[sub 2] and C[sub 6]/LiNiO[sub 2] fabricated in discharged states,more » are demonstrated.« less

https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1149/1.2220849/pdf

Formation of Lithium-Graphite Intercalation Compounds in Nonaqueous Electrolytes and Their Application as a Negative Electrode for a Lithium Ion (Shuttlecock) Cell

Comparative study of LiCoO2, LiNi12Co12O2 and LiNiO2 for 4 volt secondary lithium cells

Li[Ni 1/2 Mn 3/2 ]O 4 was prepared by a two-step solid state reaction and characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD) infrared (IR)-Raman, and electron diffraction (ED). Li[Ni 1/2 Mn 3/2 ]O 4 having characteristic eight absorption bands in 400-800 cm -1 in IR spectrum, extra lines in XRD, and extra spots in ED was analyzed in terms of a superlattice structure. Analytical results on the structural data indicated that Li[Ni 1/2 Mn 3/2 ]O 4 (cubic: a = 8.167 A) was a superlattice structure based on a spinel framework structure having a space group of P4 3 32 (or P4 1 32) in which nickel ions were located at the octahedral 4(b) sites, manganese ions were at the octahedral 12(d) sites, and lithium ions were at the 8(c) sites in a cubic-close packed oxygen array consisting of the 8(c) and 24(e) sites. Well-defined Li[Ni 1/2 Mn 3/2 ]O 4 was examined in nonaqueous lithium cells and showed that the cell exhibited extremely flat operating voltage of about 4.7 V with rechargeable capacity of 135 mAh/g based on the sample weight. The reaction mechanism of Li[Ni 1/2 Mn 3/2 ]O 4 was examined and shown that the reaction at ca. 4.7 V consisted of two cubic/cubic two-phase reactions, i.e., □[Ni 1/2 Mn 3/2 ]O 4 (a = 8.00 A) was reduced to Li[Ni 1/2 Mn 3/2 ]O 4 (a = 8.17 A) via □ 1/2 Li 1/2 [Ni 1/2 Mn 3/2 ]O 4 (a = 8.09 A). Results on the detailed reversible potential measurements indicated that the flat voltage at ca. 4.7 V consisted of two voltages of 4.718 and 4.739 V. The reaction of Li[Ni 1/2 Mn 3/2 ]O 4 to Li 2 [Ni 1/2 Mn 3/2 ]O 4 is also examined and showed that the reaction proceeded in a cubic (a = 8.17 A)/tetragonal (a = 5.74 A, c = 8.69 A) two-phase reaction with the reversible potential of 2.795 V. From these results, characteristic features of topotactic two-phase reactions of Li[Ni 1/2 Mn 3/2 ]O 4 (P4 3 32) were discussed by comparing with the results on LiMn 2 O 4 (Fd3m).

Yasunobu Iwakoshi

Papers

Formation of Lithium-Graphite Intercalation Compounds in Nonaqueous Electrolytes and Their Application as a Negative Electrode for a Lithium Ion (Shuttlecock) Cell

Comparative study of LiCoO2, LiNi12Co12O2 and LiNiO2 for 4 volt secondary lithium cells

Topotactic Two-Phase Reactions of Li [ Ni1 / 2Mn3 / 2 ] O 4 ( P4332 ) in Nonaqueous Lithium Cells

Carbon materials for lithium-ion (shuttlecock) cells

Factor affecting the capacity retention of lithium-ion cells