Electric vehicles (EV), including Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV), Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV), Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV), Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV), are becoming more commonplace in the transportation sector in recent times. As the present trend suggests, this mode of transport is likely to replace internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles in the near future. Each of the main EV components has a number of technologies that are currently in use or can become prominent in the future. EVs can cause significant impacts on the environment, power system, and other related sectors. The present power system could face huge instabilities with enough EV penetration, but with proper management and coordination, EVs can be turned into a major contributor to the successful implementation of the smart grid concept. There are possibilities of immense environmental benefits as well, as the EVs can extensively reduce the greenhouse gas emissions produced by the transportation sector. However, there are some major obstacles for EVs to overcome before totally replacing ICE vehicles. This paper is focused on reviewing all the useful data available on EV configurations, battery energy sources, electrical machines, charging techniques, optimization techniques, impacts, trends, and possible directions of future developments. Its objective is to provide an overall picture of the current EV technology and ways of future development to assist in future researches in this sector.

https://www.preprints.org/manuscript/201705.0090/v1/download

A Comprehensive Study of Key Electric Vehicle (EV) Components, Technologies, Challenges, Impacts, and Future Direction of Development

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Electronic Control Of Switched Reluctance Machines

In a hybrid or electric vehicle powertrain, a boost dc–dc converter enables reduction of the size of the electric machine and optimization of the battery system. Design of the powertrain boost converter is challenging because the converter must be rated at high peak power, while efficiency at medium-to-light load is critical for the vehicle system performance. By addressing only some of the loss mechanisms, previously proposed efficiency improvement approaches offer limited improvements in size, cost, and efficiency tradeoffs. This paper shows how all dominant loss mechanisms in automotive powertrain applications can be mitigated using a new boost composite converter approach. In the composite dc–dc architecture, the loss mechanisms associated with indirect power conversion are addressed explicitly, resulting in fundamental efficiency improvements over wide ranges of operating conditions. Several composite converter topologies are presented and compared to state-of-the-art boost converter technologies. It is found that the selected boost composite converter results in a decrease in the total loss by a factor of 2–4 for typical drive cycles. Furthermore, the total system capacitor power rating and energy rating are substantially reduced, which implies potentials for significant reductions in system size and cost.

Electrified Automotive Powertrain Architecture Using Composite DC–DC Converters

The strive for efficient and cost-effective photovoltaic (PV) systems motivated the power electronic design developed here. The work resulted in a dc–dc converter for module integration and distributed maximum power point tracking (MPPT) with a novel adaptive control scheme. The latter is essential for the combined features of high energy efficiency and high power quality over a wide range of operating conditions. The switching frequency is optimally modulated as a function of solar irradiance for power conversion efficiency maximization. With the rise of irradiance, the frequency is reduced to reach the conversion efficiency target. A search algorithm is developed to determine the optimal switching frequency step. Reducing the switching frequency may, however, compromise MPPT efficiency. Furthermore, it leads to increased ripple content. Therefore, to achieve a uniform high power quality under all conditions, interleaved converter cells are adaptively activated. The overall cost is kept low by selecting components that allow for implementing the functions at low cost. Simulation results show the high value of the module integrated converter for dc standalone and microgrid applications. A 400-W prototype was implemented at 0.14 Euro/W. Testing showed efficiencies above 95 %, taking into account all losses from power conversion, MPPT, and measurement and control circuitry.

Irradiance-Adaptive PV Module Integrated Converter for High Efficiency and Power Quality in Standalone and DC Microgrid Applications

This paper proposes a cascaded multiport switched reluctance motor (SRM) drive for hybrid electric vehicle applications, which not only allows flexible energy conversion among the generator/ac grid, the battery bank, and the motor, but also achieves battery management (BM) function for state-of-charge balance control and bus voltage regulation. By integrating the battery packs into the asymmetrical half-bridge converter, the cascaded BM modules are designed to configure multilevel bus voltage and current capacity for SRM drive, which can accelerate the excitation and demagnetization processes during the commutation region, extend the speed range, reduce the voltage stress on the switches, and improve the torque capability and system efficiency. According to the different operation requirements, the multiple driving modes, regenerative braking modes, and charging modes are equipped in the proposed converter. Moreover, with the proposed BM strategy, each battery pack can be separately connected or disconnected from the power supply, which will greatly enhance the fault-tolerance ability and easily avoid the overcharge and overdischarge issues during the motor operation. The feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed cascaded multiport SRM drive are verified by the experiments on a three-phase 12/8 SRM.

Cascaded Multiport Converter for SRM-Based Hybrid Electrical Vehicle Applications

Interleaved dc–dc converters with integrated magnetic components capable to achieve high power density have recently gained attention in automotive applications for eco-friendly transportation. These circuits may contribute to the downsizing of powertrains for electric vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) using close-coupled inductors (CCIs) and loosely coupled inductors (LCIs). In this study, a novel core model for size and loss calculation of the interleaved converter with integrated winding coupled inductors (IWCIs) is proposed to assess the size of magnetic components. This assessment was carried out using the parameters of a 1-kW circuit. As a result, interleaved converters with IWCIs proved to be more effective than the converters with LCIs and CCIs for downsizing the magnetic components. In contrast, it was also found that the interleaved converter with LCIs achieved downsizing of the magnetic component at a duty ratio close to 50%. Finally, the effectiveness of the calculation model was validated through experimental tests.

Downsizing Effects of Integrated Magnetic Components in High Power Density DC–DC Converters for EV and HEV Applications

High step-up converters are widely used in sustainable energy systems and recently used in automotive applications due to their high voltage gain capability. Nevertheless, with the purpose of obtaining a higher voltage gain, in comparison with conventional boost converters, current high step-up converters often employ additional multiplier cells, which may lead to significant cost-up and low power density. Therefore, a novel two-phase interleaved high step-up converter is proposed in order to minimize additional circuit volume used to achieve large voltage gain. The proposed converter addresses the purpose by a particular coupled inductor where three windings are installed in one or two cores. As a result, the proposed converter can achieve higher voltage gain than the conventional topologies by adding a winding and two diodes to the interleaved two phase boost chopper, besides the coupled-inductor configuration. This paper evaluates two arrangements of the coupled-inductor configuration of the proposed high step-up converter: 1. Three windings integrated in only one core and 2. Two independent inductors with a shared winding. The result revealed that the proposed converter shows higher voltage gain than the normal boost converter and the magnetic integration in the coupled-inductor configuration further increases the voltage gain by 20%.

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Analysis of coupled-inductor configuration for an interleaved high step-up converter

High power density DC/DC converters have gained attention in automotive applications for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles. Inductors often appear as the largest component in DC/DC converters. DC/DC converters using a coupled inductor are well-known as one of the topologies which can achieve miniaturization of a magnetic component. Temperature of an inductor tends to be higher in high power density DC/DC converters. Thus, an optimal magnetic property selection is necessary for magnetic designs. In this paper, we have analyzed the relationship between inductor losses that affects the heat and inductor volume as the previous stage of the thermal analysis in the inductor. In addition, this paper presents analytical comparisons of various magnetic materials used in practical designs. This study is focused on interleaved boost converter of integrated winding coupled inductors, loose-coupled inductors and non-coupled inductors. The study is discussed from the view point of inductor losses and inductor volume.

Inductor loss analysis of various materials in interleaved boost converters

The demand of high power Continuous Conduction Mode (CCM) Power Factor Correction (PFC) converter installed in charging devices for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles has grown in the recent years. In these converters, the inductor often appears as the largest component, consequently, the CCM boost PFC converter using coupled inductors is well-known as one of the topologies that can achieve miniaturization and weight reduction of the inductors. However, the change of the magnetic flux during a half cycle of the input AC voltage has not yet been analyzed in detail. Therefore, the cause of the difference of the magnetic saturation is not known. In the case of non-coupled inductor, the magnetic saturation occurs at a point of the peak inductor current. In contrast, in the case of the coupled inductor, the magnetic saturation occurs at a different point than the inductor current peak. In this paper, the change of the magnetic flux in a half cycle of the input AC voltage is analyzed. Additionally, the novel design method of the coupled inductor considering the maximum magnetic flux is proposed. Finally, the validity of the novel design method is confirmed by experimental tests.

Design method considering magnetic saturation issue of coupled inductor in interleaved CCM boost PFC converter

The DC magnetization is one of the common causes of operational faults in forward DC-DC converters because it may promote magnetic saturation in the transformers. A useful remedy is to detect the DC magnetization using a sensor and eliminate it by a controller. The purpose of this paper is to propose a simple but reliable sensor. Although a number of sensors have been proposed in prior works, they often suffer from complicated implementation or from influence of the load current on the sensor output. The proposed method, on the other hand, can be implemented only by a search coil equipped on the power transformer without adding any special physical structure except a through-hole on the core. Despite of the simple implementation, the method is not affected by the load current and can detect the DC magnetization before apparent magnetic saturation occurs. This paper also presents an experiment, which verified that the load current does not affect the sensor output and that the DC magnetization can be detected even under the flux density below the saturation level. These results support usefulness of the proposed sensor in practical applications.

Yuki Itoh

Papers

Downsizing Effects of Integrated Magnetic Components in High Power Density DC–DC Converters for EV and HEV Applications

Analysis of coupled-inductor configuration for an interleaved high step-up converter

Inductor loss analysis of various materials in interleaved boost converters

Design method considering magnetic saturation issue of coupled inductor in interleaved CCM boost PFC converter

A detection method of DC magnetization utilizing local inhomogeneity of flux distribution in power transformer core