Woolly mammoths inhabited Eurasia and North America from late Middle Pleistocene (300 ky BP [300,000 years before present]), surviving through different climatic cycles until they vanished in the Holocene (3.6 ky BP). The debate about why the Late Quaternary extinctions occurred has centred upon environmental and human-induced effects, or a combination of both. However, testing these two hypotheses—climatic and anthropogenic—has been hampered by the difficulty of generating quantitative estimates of the relationship between the contraction of the mammoth's geographical range and each of the two hypotheses. We combined climate envelope models and a population model with explicit treatment of woolly mammoth–human interactions to measure the extent to which a combination of climate changes and increased human pressures might have led to the extinction of the species in Eurasia. Climate conditions for woolly mammoths were measured across different time periods: 126 ky BP, 42 ky BP, 30 ky BP, 21 ky BP, and 6 ky BP. We show that suitable climate conditions for the mammoth reduced drastically between the Late Pleistocene and the Holocene, and 90% of its geographical range disappeared between 42 ky BP and 6 ky BP, with the remaining suitable areas in the mid-Holocene being mainly restricted to Arctic Siberia, which is where the latest records of woolly mammoths in continental Asia have been found. Results of the population models also show that the collapse of the climatic niche of the mammoth caused a significant drop in their population size, making woolly mammoths more vulnerable to the increasing hunting pressure from human populations. The coincidence of the disappearance of climatically suitable areas for woolly mammoths and the increase in anthropogenic impacts in the Holocene, the coup de grâce, likely set the place and time for the extinction of the woolly mammoth.

/pdf/climate-change-humans-and-the-extinction-of-the-woolly-1133qbmibq.pdf

Climate change, humans, and the extinction of the woolly mammoth.

As the largest frugivores on Earth, elephants have unique ecological properties. Found in deserts, savannahs, and forests, they are the last remnants of a diverse lineage. Among the three currently recognized forms, African forest elephants are the most frugivorous, followed by Asian and African savannah elephants, although their role as seed dispersers is variable and context-dependent. African forest elephants may consume more seeds from more species than any other taxon of large vertebrate dispersers, defecating them over long distances in viable conditions into nutrient-rich and protective dung. In short, elephants are forest gardeners. The signature of elephant dispersal is evident in the spatial distribution of trees suggesting that elephants maintain tree diversity and retain low redundancy in seed dispersal systems. Large numbers of forest elephants ranging over large areas may be essential for ecosystem function. The loss of elephants will have important negative consequences for the ecological trajectories of some plant species and whole ecological communities, yet the conservation status of forest elephants is catastrophic in Asia and rapidly becoming so in Africa due to hunting and other conflicts with people. In this paper we review the current knowledge of elephants as seed dispersers, discuss the ecological consequences of their decline, and suggest priority areas for research and conservation action.

https://faculty.washington.edu/timbillo/Readings%20and%20documents/CO2%20and%20Forests%20readings/Campos%20Arceiz%202011%20Elephant%20seed%20dispersal.pdf

Megagardeners of the forest - the role of elephants in seed dispersal

We report the first genetic analysis of free-ranging Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). We sampled 118 elephants from Sri Lanka, Bhutan/North India, and Laos/Vietnam by extracting DNA from dung, PCR amplifying and sequencing 630 nucleotides of mitochondrial DNA, including part of the variable left domain of the control region. Comparison with African elephant (Loxodonta africana) sequences indicated a relatively slow molecular clock in the Proboscidea with a sequence divergence of approximately 1%/Myr. Genetic diversity within Asian elephants was low, suggesting a small long-term effective population size. Seventeen haplotypes were identified within Asian elephants, which clustered into two well-differentiated assemblages with an estimated Pliocene divergence of 2.5-3.5 million years ago. The two assemblages showed incomplete geographical partitioning, suggesting allopatric divergence and secondary admixture. On the mainland, little genetic differentiation was observed between elephant populations of Bhutan and India or Laos and Vietnam. A significant difference in haplotype frequencies but relatively weak subdivision was observed between the regions Bhutan-India and Laos-Vietnam. Significant genetic differentiation was observed between the mainland and Sri Lanka, and between northern, mid-latitude and southern regions in Sri Lanka.

/pdf/mitochondrial-dna-variation-phylogeography-and-population-22i1demc4z.pdf

Mitochondrial DNA variation, phylogeography and population structure of the Asian elephant.

Several recent estimates of global biodiversity have concluded that the total number of species on Earth lies near the lower end of the wide range touted in previous decades. However, none of these recent estimates formally explore the real "elephant in the room", namely, what proportion of species are taxonomically invisible to conventional assessments, and thus, as undiagnosed cryptic species, remain uncountable until revealed by multi-gene molecular assessments. Here we explore the significance and extent of so-called "hyper-cryptic" species complexes, using the Australian freshwater fish Galaxias olidus as a proxy for any organism whose taxonomy ought to be largely finalized when compared to those in little-studied or morphologically undifferentiated groups. Our comprehensive allozyme (838 fish for 54 putative loci), mtDNA (557 fish for 605 bp of cytb), and morphological (1963-3389 vouchers for 17-58 characters) assessment of this species across its broad geographic range revealed a 1500% increase in species-level biodiversity, and suggested that additional taxa may remain undiscovered. Importantly, while all 15 candidate species were morphologically diagnosable a posteriori from one another, single-gene DNA barcoding proved largely unsuccessful as an a priori method for species identification. These results lead us to draw two strong inferences of relevance to estimates of global biodiversity. First, hyper-cryptic complexes are likely to be common in many organismal groups. Second, no assessment of species numbers can be considered "best practice" in the molecular age unless it explicitly includes estimates of the extent of cryptic and hyper-cryptic biodiversity. [Galaxiidae; global estimates; hyper-diverse; mountain galaxias; species counts; species richness.].

/pdf/global-biodiversity-assessment-and-hyper-cryptic-species-27wrutvg10.pdf

Global biodiversity assessment and hyper-cryptic species complexes: more than one species of elephant in the room?

The origin of Borneo's elephants is controversial. Two competing hypotheses argue that they are either indigenous, tracing back to the Pleistocene, or were introduced, descending from elephants imported in the 16th–18th centuries. Taxonomically, they have either been classified as a unique subspecies or placed under the Indian or Sumatran subspecies. If shown to be a unique indigenous population, this would extend the natural species range of the Asian elephant by 1300 km, and therefore Borneo elephants would have much greater conservation importance than if they were a feral population. We compared DNA of Borneo elephants to that of elephants from across the range of the Asian elephant, using a fragment of mitochondrial DNA, including part of the hypervariable d-loop, and five autosomal microsatellite loci. We find that Borneo's elephants are genetically distinct, with molecular divergence indicative of a Pleistocene colonisation of Borneo and subsequent isolation. We reject the hypothesis that Borneo's elephants were introduced. The genetic divergence of Borneo elephants warrants their recognition as a separate evolutionary significant unit. Thus, interbreeding Borneo elephants with those from other populations would be contraindicated in ex situ conservation, and their genetic distinctiveness makes them one of the highest priority populations for Asian elephant conservation.

/pdf/dna-analysis-indicates-that-asian-elephants-are-native-to-348ofcjidk.pdf

正清黒田

Papers

象(Elephas Maximus)の胆汁成分について

正清 黒田

Papers

象(Elephas Maximus)の胆汁成分について

正清黒田