Showing papers presented at "International Conference on Social Robotics in 2012"

Anthropomorphism and human likeness in the design of robots and human-robot interaction

Abstract: In this literature review we explain anthropomorphism and its role in the design of socially interactive robots and human-robot interaction. We illustrate the social phenomenon of anthropomorphism which describes people's tendency to attribute lifelike qualities to objects and other non lifelike artifacts. We present theoretical backgrounds from social sciences, and integrate related work from robotics research, including results from experiments with social robots. We present different approaches for anthropomorphic and humanlike form in a robot's design related to its physical shape, its behavior, and its interaction with humans. This review provides a comprehensive understanding of anthropomorphism in robotics, collects and reports relevant references, and gives an outlook on anthropomorphic human-robot interaction.

Long-term interactions with empathic robots: evaluating perceived support in children

Abstract: In this paper, we present an empathic model for social robots that aim to interact with children for extended periods of time. The application of this model to a scenario in which a social robot plays chess with children is described. To evaluate the proposed model, we ran a long-term study in an elementary school and measured children's perception of social support. Our results suggest that children felt supported by the robot in a similar extent to what, in general, children feel supported by their peers. Another interesting finding was that the most valued form of social support was esteem support (reinforcing the other person's sense of competence and self-esteem).

Embodiment and cognitive learning --- can a humanoid robot help children with autism to learn about tactile social behaviour?

Abstract: The work presented in this paper is part of our investigation in the ROBOSKIN project. The project aims to develop new robot capabilities based on the tactile feedback provided by novel robotic skin. The main objective of the project is to develop cognitive mechanisms to improve human-robot interaction capabilities. One application domain that is investigated in the project is robot-assisted play in the context of autism therapy. The article provides a case study evaluation of segments of trials where tactile interactions were observed between children with autism and the humanoid robot KASPAR which was equipped with the newly developed tactile sensing capabilities. A preliminary observational analysis was undertaken which applied, in abbreviated form, certain principles from ethnography and conversation analysis. The analysis first reports initial observations concerning range of tactile behaviours that children displayed towards KASPAR and the change in these across the trials. Subsequently the analysis examines in detail one sequence of interaction in which a child's tactile actions towards KASPAR are considered in terms of their responsiveness to the sequence of interaction in which they occur --- and specifically to the intricate details of KASPAR's responses to the child's tactile behaviour. In this way the paper suggests that children appear to interact in a tactile manner quite spontaneously with KASPAR, that the child's tactile actions become modified through exposure to KASPAR and that children with an Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) can demonstrate a marked responsiveness to the behaviours that KASPAR displays in sequences of tactile interaction.

Body ownership transfer to teleoperated android robot

Abstract: Teleoperators of android robots occasionally feel as if the robotic bodies are extensions of their own. When others touch the teleoperated android, even without tactile feedback, some operators feel as if they themselves have been touched. In the past, a similar phenomenon named "Rubber Hand Illusion" has been studied for its reflection of a three-way interaction among vision, touch and proprioception. In this study, we examined whether a similar interaction occurs when replacing a tactile sensation with android robot teleoperation; that is, whether the interaction among vision, motion and proprioception occurs. The result showed that when the operator and the android motions are synchronized, operators feel as if their sense of body ownership is transferred to the android robot.

User-defined body gestures for navigational control of a humanoid robot

Abstract: This paper presents a study that allows users to define intuitive gestures to navigate a humanoid robot. For eleven navigational commands, 385 gestures, performed by 35 participants, were analyzed. The results of the study reveal user-defined gesture sets for both novice users and expert users. In addition, we present, a taxonomy of the user-defined gesture sets, agreement scores for the gesture sets, time performances of the gesture motions, and present implications to the design of the robot control, with a focus on recognition and user interfaces.

How can a social robot facilitate children's collaboration?

Abstract: We used a social robot as a teaching assistant in a class for children's collaborative learning. The class was designed to be learner-centered, and we formed a class only with a robot and children but without adults. In the class, a group of 6th graders learned together using Lego Mindstorms for seven lessons. Robovie managed the class and explained how to use Lego Mindstorms, then children freely tested their ideas to achieve a given task in each class. In addition, Robovie performed social behaviors, which aimed to build relationships with and encourage the children. Beyond this design, we observed that such social behaviors facilitated interaction among children, which made the class more enjoyable and motivated children to want Robovie around again. In this paper, we report our exploratory analysis about when such social behaviors facilitated interaction among children.

Would granny let an assistive robot into her home

Abstract: Assistive robots have received considerable research attention due to the increase of the senior population around the world and the shortage of caregivers. However, limited attention has been paid to involving seniors in the design process in order to elicit their attitudes and perception of having their own robot. This study addresses this issue. We conducted a workshop with 14 Swedish seniors age 65 to 86. The findings indicate that: (1) the functionality of the robot is far more important than the appearance; (2) the usefulness will determine the acceptance of a robot; (3) seniors feel it is important to keep up to date with new technological developments; (4) assistive robots were not perceived as intrusive and having a robotic presence in the seniors' bathrooms and bedrooms was considered acceptable. These findings suggest that seniors are prepared to give assistive robots a try if the robot is perceived as useful.

Studies on grounding with gaze and pointing gestures in human-robot-interaction

Abstract: In this study we investigated the use of gaze and pointing gestures in scenarios where a human has to follow the instructions of a humanoid robot. Our objective was to analyze the performance of a human participant, that solves an abstract jigsaw puzzle with the help of our robot instructor, in different grounding scenarios with varying difficulty. Furthermore we investigated how the attitude towards the robot and the self-assessment of the participant changed. Our results support that adding gaze to the interaction usually improves the interaction, but often additional pointing gestures are needed to make a significant difference.

Robot social intelligence

Abstract: Robots are pervading human society today at an ever-accelerating rate, but in order to actualize their profound potential impact, robots will need cognitive capabilities that support the necessary social intelligence required to fluently engage with people and other robots. People are social agents and robots must develop sufficient social intelligence to engage with them effectively. Despite their enormous potential, robots will not be accepted in society unless they exhibit social intelligence skills. They cannot work with people effectively if they ignore the limitations, needs, expectations and vulnerability of people working in and around their workspaces. People are limited social agents, i.e. they do not have unlimited cognitive, computational and physical capabilities. People have limited ability in perceiving, paying attention, reacting to stimuli, anticipating, and problem-solving. In addition, people are constrained by their morphology; it limits their physical strength for example. People cannot be expected to and will not compensate for social deficiencies of robots, hence widespread acceptance and integration of robots into society will only be achieved if robots possess the sufficient social intelligence to communicate, interact and collaborate with people. In this paper we identify the key cognitive capabilities robots will require to achieve appropriate levels of social intelligence for safe and effective engagement with people. This work serves as a proto-blueprint that can inform the emerging roadmap and research agenda for the new exciting and challenging field of social robotics.

Imagery of disabled people within social robotics research

Abstract: Social robotics is an emerging field, with many applications envisioned for people with disabilities. This paper explores these applications and the portrayal of people with disabilities within the social robotics discourse. Our review of social robotics literature revealed that social robotics mainly portrays disabled people through a medical/body ability deficiency lens, namely identifying deficient abilities, and then proposing how a certain robot can fix them and give the individual "normal" functioning. However, within the Disabled People Rights Movement, the academic field of disability studies, and existing legal documents, a second narrative is evident which focuses less on 'fixing' the person to the species-typical norm, and more on increasing the participation in society of that person the way they are. We submit that the second type of narrative and its way of defining problems and solutions needs more visibility within the social robotics discourse and in the vision of possible products.

Emotional robotics in elder care --- a comparison of findings in the UK and germany

Abstract: Robot-therapy with emotional robots is a new approach for people with cognitive impairments. This article looks at explorative findings of the therapeutic seal PARO in a practice network in England and findings of PARO and the toy dinosaur PLEO in teaching research projects in Germany. The findings in the UK and Germany have comparable outcomes on social interaction of the residents. Examples of the outcomes are presented and analysed with respect to the question in how far there are indicators for a new quality of interaction due to the robotic intervention and in how far it can contribute to interventions which enhance social interaction in care.

A cross-cultural study on generation of culture dependent facial expressions of humanoid social robot

Abstract: Communication between humans and robots is a very critical step for the integration of social robots into society. Emotion expression through a robotic face is one of the key points of communication. Despite the most recent efforts, no matter how much expression capabilities improve, facial expression recognition is often hampered by a cultural divide between subjects that participate in surveys. The purpose of this work is to take advantage of the 24 degrees of freedom head of the humanoid social robot KOBIAN-R for making it capable of displaying different versions of the same expressions, using face and neck, in a way that they are easy to understand for Japanese and for Western subjects. We present a system based on relevant studies of human communication and facial anatomy, as well as on the work of illustrators and cartoonists. The expression generator we developed can be adapted to specific cultures. Results confirmed the in-group advantage, showing that the recognition rate of this system is higher when the nationality of the subjects and the cultural characterisation of the shown expressions are coincident. We conclude that this system could be used, in future, on robots that have to interact in a social environment, with people with different cultural background.

How can a robot attract the attention of its human partner? a comparative study over different modalities for attracting attention

Abstract: One of the most common tasks of a robot companion in the home is communication. In order to initiate an information exchange with its human partner, the robot needs to attract the attention of the human. This paper presents results of a user study (N=12) with elderly people (62 - 70 years) to evaluate different modalities for attracting attention. Results show that actions which involve sound generate the fastest reaction times and are better perceived by participants. Surprisingly attempting to attract attention by establishing eye-contact resulted in worse participants' perception. We interpret these results as that robot gazing behaviour is better suited for situations in which the user's focus of visual attention is already on the robot.

A geminoid as lecturer

Abstract: In this paper we report our findings from an experiment with the tele-operated android Geminoid-DK The geminoid took up the role of a university lecturer and delivered a 45 minute lecture in front of 150 freshmen students at Aalborg University While considering the role of the geminoid in this educational context, we report results relating to large-room teaching, as well as gender differences in the perception of the robot

Affective tele-touch

Abstract: Classical works have described how touch therapy has been effective in the recovery and good appetite of children in hospitals. This paper proposes an affective tele-touch system prototype customized for therapeutic touches over the Internet. The affective contact area was designated to the posterior forearm surface where three stimuli were made available: vibration, warmth, and tickle. Affective tele-touches could be applied either with a sensory haptic device. We have conducted touch therapy experiments with this system to look at the experimental subjects' recovery from video-induced sadness with heartbeat rates as the psycho-physiological measurement indicator. Our results show that a touch from a human hand or a tele-touch was able to reduce heartbeat rates of the participants after they watched a sad video clip.

Impedance control of a rehabilitation robot for interactive training

Abstract: In this paper, neural networks based impedance control is developed for a wearable rehabilitation robot in interactions with humans and the environments. The dynamics of the robot are represented by an n-link rigid robotic manipulator. To deal with the system uncertainties and improve the robustness of the system, the adaptive neural networks are used to approximate the unknown model of the constrained robot. With the proposed control, uniform ultimate boundedness of the closed loop system is achieved based on the Lyapunov method. The states of the system converge to a small neighborhood of zero by properly choosing control gains. Extensive simulations are conducted to verify the proposed control.

The automaticity of social behavior towards robots: the influence of cognitive load on interpersonal distance to approachable versus less approachable robots

Abstract: Social robots are designed to promote social responses by human users. Based on the Media Equation theory, we argue that the way in which people interact with technology resembles the way in which humans interact with other humans, and, crucially, that these social responses are mainly of an automatic nature. To investigate the automaticity of social behavior towards robots, the current study assessed a well-studied (in human-human interaction) social behavior: interpersonal distance people keep, though not from other humans but from a robot. Earlier research suggested that the social behavior of distance keeping depends (amongst others) on the bodily posture of the interaction partner. Based on these earlier studies, we expected that participants would keep an interpersonal distance dependent on the posture of their robotic interaction partner especially if a participant was responding in more automatic ways. We manipulated robot posture (approachable versus less approachable) and the cognitive load of the participant (high versus low), and measured user-robot approach distance in ten short interaction tasks. In line with expectations, results suggested that especially participants under high cognitive load approached the robot closer when its posture communicated approachableness than when it communicated less approachableness. Thereby, the current results suggested that especially when people are cognitively distracted, their behavior towards robots is of a social nature and comparable to their behavior when responding to other humans. Implications for theory, research and design of social robots are discussed.

Keep an eye on the task! how gender typicality of tasks influence human---robot interactions

Abstract: In the present experiment, we tested the impact of the gender typicality of a human---robot interaction (HRI) task on the user's performance during HRI, and on evaluation and acceptance of the robot. N = 73 participants (38 males and 35 females) performed either a stereotypically male or a stereotypically female task while being instructed by either a 'male' or a 'female' robot. Our results revealed that gender typicality of the task substantially influenced our dependent measures: Specifically, more errors occurred when participants collaborated with the robot in context of a typically female work domain. Moreover, participants were less willing to accept help from the robot in a future task when they performed a typically female task. These effects were independent of robot and participant gender. Furthermore, when instructing participants on a female task, the male and the female robot were perceived as equally competent. In contrast, when instructing participants on a male task, the female robot was perceived as more competent compared to the male robot. Our findings will be discussed with regard to theoretical and practical implications.

Social acceptance of a teleoperated android: field study on elderly's engagement with an embodied communication medium in denmark

Abstract: We explored the potential of teleoperated android robots, which are embodied telecommunication media with humanlike appearances, and how they affect people in the real world when they are employed to express a telepresence and a sense of 'being there'. In Denmark, our exploratory study focused on the social aspects of Telenoid, a teleoperated android, which might facilitate communication between senior citizens and Telenoid's operator. After applying it to the elderly in their homes, we found that the elderly assumed positive attitudes toward Telenoid, and their positivity and strong attachment to its huggable minimalistic human design were cross-culturally shared in Denmark and Japan. Contrary to the negative reactions by non-users in media reports, our result suggests that teleoperated androids can be accepted by the elderly as a kind of universal design medium for social inclusion.

Studies in public places as a means to positively influence people's attitude towards robots

Abstract: It is the aim of this paper to show on a meta-level how studies in public places can contribute to positively influence people's attitude towards robots. By means of examining objective and subjective data gathered in the lab and data from field studies, it will be shown how people's experiences with a robot outside the sheltering laboratory surroundings can help to value robots more positively. We argue, that studies in public places can serve as a means to enable many people with hands-on experiences and as proof-of-concept evaluation for researchers. We contrasted people's explicit ratings of our robots and although the differences are rather subtle, they nevertheless reveal a tendency for the positive effect of field studies in public places. Additionally, we contrasted people's implicit attitude towards robots which could support our assumption that people who interacted with robots in the field rate it significantly better than people who interacted with it in the lab.

Investigating the effects of robotic displays of protest and distress

Abstract: While research in machine ethics has investigated mechanisms for making artificial agents' decisions more ethical, there is currently not work investigating adaptations to human-robot interaction (HRI) that can promote ethical behavior on the human side. We present the first results from HRI experiments showing that verbal protests and affective displays can promote ethical behavior in human subjects.

Android emotions revealed

Abstract: This work presents a method for designing facial interfaces for sociable android robots with respect to the fundamental rules of human affect expression. Extending the work of Paul Ekman towards a robotic direction, we follow the judgment-based approach for evaluating facial expressions to test in which case an android robot like the Geminoid|DK ---a duplicate of an Original person- reveals emotions convincingly; when following an empirical perspective, or when following a theoretical one. The methodology includes the processes of acquiring the empirical data, and gathering feedback on them. Our findings are based on the results derived from a number of judgments, and suggest that before programming the facial expressions of a Geminoid, the Original should pass through the proposed procedure. According to our recommendations, the facial expressions of an android should be tested by judges, even in cases that no Original is engaged in the android face creation.

Human-robot handshaking: a hybrid deliberate/reactive model

Abstract: In this paper, we propose a hybrid deliberate/reactive model to achieve natural handshaking between human beings and robots Our goal is to provide a perspective to achieve natural human-robot handshaking in addition to time/frequency based trajectory control The proposed model consists of two parts The reactive part is designed to enable the robot to follow the handshaking motion led by the human being, while the deliberate part is dedicated to embed a unique handshaking character into the robot The validity of the proposed model is examined by comparing the trajectory and interaction force during the human-human and human-robot handshaking, respectively

Robot drama research: from identification to synchronization

Abstract: Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro created the Robot Actors Project at Osaka University to experiment with robot presence and robot control in theatre situations. Instead of focusing attention on imitation, the roboticist developed his interest in theatre representation. Since then, the challenge of being in direct contact with live audiences has enriched our understanding of communication between humans and robots and between humans via robots. Today, the Robot Actors Project seeks to demystify the idea of fictional robots by familiarizing the public with the current state of robotics and experiments. A stage play with robots is not just a matter of how to construct realistic androids like animatronics for movies; it is about creating dramatic situations. In a laboratory, a robot is always a robot, but on stage a robot becomes an actor.

How social robots make older users really feel well --- a method to assess users' concepts of a social robotic assistant

Abstract: The present study explored a workshop method including questionnaires but also creative, implicit methods as a new way of uncovering users' implicit concepts of a helper and supporting creative answers by users. Eight older (70+) and ten younger (<70) participants collaborated in the workshops. They filled in a questionnaire and completed a picture association activity as well as a creative modelling unit. The word 'robot' was not used in the entire workshops to prevent users from directly thinking of robot stereotypes. Results demonstrated that picture associations cause a higher amount of answers regarding features of a 'helper' than direct questionnaire items. These results can be translated to the field of social robotics. According to the findings, users preferred a structure of the helper that featured arms, some kind of body and a head they could talk to. Most of all, picture associations played an important role in revealing the individual concepts of users. These results suggest that the method of implicit questioning is a useful additional approach in the assessment of user requirements and human-robot-interaction research.

Programming behaviour of a personal service robot with application to healthcare

Abstract: We propose an approach for developing applications on a personal healthcare service robot. We have developed a model of representing robot behaviour through a domain specific language (DSL) and enabling authoring through a Visual Programming Environment (VPE), RoboStudio. RoboStudio is to be used by robot designers, developers and domain experts for developing social robotics behaviour in a healthcare environment. The method for authoring is visual in order to convey the robot's decision logic and interaction behaviour in a more intuitive manner while retaining expressiveness. In the paper, we discuss current progress we have made in raising the level of abstraction in service application development. This will help the robotics community to make significant investment in developing programming infrastructures, better programming language support and enhancing existing programming languages through simpler syntax and expressive semantics.

A multi-modal approach for natural human-robot interaction

Abstract: We present a robot that is able to interact with people in a natural, multi-modal way by using both speech and gesture. The robot is able to track people, process speech and understand language. To track people and recognize gestures, the robot uses an RGB-D sensor (e.g., a Microsoft Kinect). To recognize speech, the robot uses a cloud-based service. To understand language, the robot uses a probabilistic graphical model to infer the meaning of a natural language query. We have evaluated our system in two domains. The first domain is a robot receptionist (roboceptionist); we show that the roboceptionist is able to interact successfully with people 77% of the time when people are primed with the capabilities of the robot compared to 57% when people are not primed with its capabilities. The second domain is a mobile service robot, which is able to interact with people via natural language.

Why not artificial sympathy

Abstract: "Empathy" and "Sympathy" are often confusingly used. Beside the difference in their usage, the key component could be a sort of emotional state to be shared, and the way to represent or manipulate it might be different. This could be clearer when we attempt to design it for artificial agents. This paper argues what are differences between empathy and sympathy, and how to design each of them for an artificial agent. First, the dictionary meaning of both is reviewed, and a metaphor to intuitively explain the difference is introduced. Next, we argue how artificial empathy and artificial sympathy can be designed, and a cognitive developmental robotics is introduced as a promising approach to the latter, especially from a viewpoint of learning and development. A rough design for artificial sympathy is argued, and preliminary studies needed to build the artificial sympathy are introduced. Finally, future issues are given.

Manipulating mental states through physical action

Abstract: We present our implementation of a self-as-simulator architecture for mental state manipulation through physical action. The robot attempts to model how a human's mental states are updated through their visual perception of the world around them. This modeling, combined with geometrically detailed, perspective correct simulations of the immediate future, allows the robot to choose actions which influence the human's mental states through their visual perception. The system is demonstrated in a competitive game scenario, where the robot attempts to manipulate the mental states of an individual in order to win. We evaluate people's reaction to the system, focusing on the participants' perception of a robot with mental state manipulation capabilities.

Identifying specific reasons behind unmet needs may inform more specific eldercare robot design

Abstract: Many countries are facing aging and aged populations and a shortage of eldercare resources. Eldercare robots have been proposed to help close this resource gap. Prevalence of eldercare robots may be enhanced by more acceptable robot design. Current assistive robot design guidelines are general and consequently difficult to translate into specific acceptable design. This paper proposes a method for developing more specific eldercare robot design guidelines. Technology acceptance models suggest acceptable robots need to be perceived as useful as well as easy to use. As older people often have high levels of unmet need, knowledge of the needs of older people and other eldercare stakeholders can suggest how robots could be usefully deployed. It is further proposed that determining the specific reasons why eldercare-needs are unmet may help lead to more specific design guidelines for eldercare robot form and function, as well as the design of robot marketing, distribution and deployment strategies.