Showing papers by "Edinburgh Napier University published in 2004"

Characterizing e-participation in policy-making

Abstract: This paper argues the urgent need to better understand the e-democracy pilots that have taken place so far and that are currently being developed. It addresses the issues of what should be characterized in e-democracy pilots so as to better identify types of citizen participation exercises and the appropriate technology to support them, as such it offers an analytical framework for electronic participation. Over the last decade there has been a gradual awareness of the need to consider the innovative application of ICTs for participation that enables a wider audience to contribute to democratic debate and where contributions themselves are broader and deeper. This awareness has resulted in a number of isolated e-democracy pilots and research studies. It is important to consolidate this work and characterizes the level of participation, the technology used, the stage in the policy-making process and various issues and constraints, including the potential benefits.

Why older people do not participate in leisure time physical activity: a survey of activity levels, beliefs and deterrents

Abstract: Background Regular physical activity has been shown to have many health benefits. However, many older people are physically inactive. Objective To investigate why older people are reluctant to participate in leisure time physical activity and to identify strategies to encourage increased activity. Design Cross-sectional survey. Setting 16 general practices in Dundee, Scotland. Methods 409 randomly selected older people (65-84 years) who lived independently were interviewed at home. Forty-six percent of those invited to take part were recruited into the study. Results Levels of knowledge about the specific health benefits of physical activity were high. Almost all participants (95%) believed that physical activity was beneficial and 79% believed that they did enough to keep healthy. However, 36% did no leisure time physical activity and a further 17% did less than 2 hours per week. Regression modelling identified 11 factors that exerted significant independent effects on levels of leisure time physical activity. The most powerful deterrent was lack of interest (OR = 7.8). Other factors included lack of daily access to a car, shortness of breath, joint pain, dislike of going out alone or in the evening, perceived lack of fitness, lack of energy, doubting that exercise can lengthen life, not belonging to a group and doubting that meeting new people is beneficial. Conclusions Increasing leisure time physical activities poses major challenges. Beliefs about desirable levels of activity in older people would need to be changed. Action would be needed to relieve physical symptoms and address fears about perceived ability to undertake physical activity. Finally, easily accessible facilities would be needed to encourage participation in physical activity.

Increased inflammation and altered macrophage chemotactic responses caused by two ultrafine particle types

Abstract: Background: Ultrafine particles have been hypothesised to be an important contributing factor in the toxicity and adverse health effects of particulate air pollution (PM10) and nanoparticles are used increasingly in industrial processes. Aims: To compare the ability of ultrafine and fine particles of titanium dioxide and carbon black to induce inflammation, cause epithelial injury, and affect the alveolar macrophage clearance functions of phagocytosis and chemotaxis in vivo. Methods: Rats were instilled with fine and ultrafine carbon black and titanium dioxide. Inflammation was quantified by bronchoalveolar lavage; the ability of the macrophages to phagoytose indictor fluorescent beads and to migrate towards aC5a were determined. Results: Ultrafine particles induced more PMN recruitment, epithelial damage, and cytotoxicity than their fine counterparts, exposed at equal mass. Both ultrafine and fine particles significantly impaired the phagocytic ability of alveolar macrophages. Only ultrafine particle treatment significantly enhanced the sensitivity of alveolar macrophages to chemotact towards C5a. Conclusions: Ultrafine particles of two very different materials induced inflammation and epithelial damage to a greater extent than their fine counterparts. In general, the effect of ultrafine carbon black was greater than ultrafine titanium dioxide, suggesting that there are differences in the likely harmfulness of different types of ultrafine particle. Epithelial injury and toxicity were associated with the development of inflammation after exposure to ultrafines. Increased sensitivity to a C5a chemotactic gradient could make the ultrafine exposed macrophages more likely to be retained in the lungs, so allowing dose to accumulate.

Calcium and ROS-mediated activation of transcription factors and TNF-α cytokine gene expression in macrophages exposed to ultrafine particles

Abstract: Ultrafine (Uf) particles are a component of particulate air pollution suggested to be responsible for the health effects associated with elevations of this pollutant. We have previously suggested that Uf particles, through the induction of oxidative stress, may induce inflammation in the lung, thus exacerbating preexisting illness in susceptible individuals. Alveolar macrophages are considered to play a key role in particlemediated inflammation and lung disease. The effect of Uf particles on rat alveolar macrophages and human blood monocytes was investigated with reference to the roles of calcium and reactive oxygen species (ROS). TNF-alpha protein release, intracellular calcium concentration, TNF-alpha mRNA expression, and transcription factor activation were studied as end points after treatment of rat alveolar macrophages or peripheral blood monocytes. The calcium channel blocker verapamil, the intracellular calcium chelator BAPTA-AM, the calmodulin inhibitor W-7, and the antioxidants Trolox and Nacystelin (NAL) were included in combination with Uf particles. Verapamil reduced intracellular calcium concentration in rat alveolar macrophages on stimulation with Uf particles. This effect was also apparent with transcription factor AP-1 activation. All antagonists and antioxidants reduced Uf-stimulated nuclear localization of the p50 and p65 subunits of NF-kappaB in human monocytes. Verapamil, BAPTA-AM, and NAL reduced Uf-stimulated TNF-alpha protein release, whereas only verapamil reduced Uf-stimulated mRNA expression in rat alveolar macrophages. In human monocytes, verapamil, Trolox, BAPTA-AM, and W-7 reduced Uf-stimulated TNF-alpha protein release. These findings suggest that Uf particles may exert proinflammatory effects by modulating intracellular calcium concentrations, activation of transcription factors, and cytokine production through a ROS-mediated mechanism.

Recycling of Demolished Masonry Rubble as Coarse Aggregate in Concrete: Review

Abstract: The recycling of demolished masonry rubble as coarse aggregate in new concrete represents an interesting possibility at a time when the cost of dumping such material is on the increase. With the number of readily accessible disposal sites around major cities in the world decreasing in recent years and disposal volume and maximum sizes of waste being restricted, the cost of dumping construction and demolition debris has increased substantially over recent years. This cost increase has been further fueled in the United Kingdom and other countries by the introduction of a landfill tax by governments and local authorities for the dumping of such waste. Due to the growing concerns over the environmental impact of aggregate extraction and the continued rise in aggregate demand, it is clear that the building and construction industry is ready to accept recycled and secondary aggregates. This paper provides a review of previous work covering the use of demolished waste, especially crushed brick, as the coarse aggregate in new concrete.

Human movement behaviour in urban spaces: implications for the design and modelling of effective pedestrian environments

Abstract: Despite a burgeoning research effort directed at the design and modelling of effective urban spaces for pedestrians, remarkably little is known about how pedestrians actually negotiate urban spaces. This paper reports the results of a video-based observational study aimed at exploring: (1) individuals' movement preferences within uncluttered environments, in particular: (a) desired walking speed, (b) microscopic position preferences, and (c) interpersonal distances between companions while walking; and (2) the ways in which these variables might be influenced by the various personal, situational, and environmental factors that characterise the context in which pedestrians move. The microscopic movement trajectories of 2613 participants were investigated in a covert, video-based observational study of three mixed-use (residential/retail) urban environments close to the city centres of Edinburgh and York, United Kingdom. Age, gender, level of mobility, group size, time of day, and location were found to have significant effects on movement preferences across the range of locations studied. We concluded that a number of influential factors affect how humans negotiate urban spaces, and suggested how these factors may be taken into account in attempts to design and model effective urban spaces for pedestrians.

An alternative internet: radical media, politics and creativity.

Abstract: This book explores how the Internet presents radical ways of organising and producing media that offer political and cultural alternatives, both to ways of doing business and to how we understand the world and our place in it. The book is characterised by in-depth case studies. Topics include the media of new social movements and other radical political organisations (including the far right); websites produced by fans of popular culture; and media dedicated to developing a critical, 'public' journalism. It locates these studies in appropriate theoretical and historical contexts, while remaining accessible to a student audience. Major themes:*The use of the Internet by political groups such as the anti-capitalist and environmental movements, as well as the far right*Radical forms of creativity and distribution: the anti-copyright and sampling/file-sharing movements, and their role as cultural critics in a corporate world*The development and maintenance of a global, 'digital public sphere' of protest through such practices as 'hacktivism'*The use of new media technologies to transform existing media forms and practices, such as news media and Internet radio.This is the first book devoted entirely to 'alternative' ways of political organisation and cultural production on the Internet. The author is one of the leading international experts in the study of alternative media, and this book is an authoritative guide to all aspects of these phenomena: the cultural, the political, the economic and the social. The range of topics covered will make it an attractive text for a wide range of media and cultural studies and computing courses.

Benchmarking Audit Committee Effectiveness in Financial Reporting

Abstract: This paper examines the effectiveness of UK audit committees in their primary responsibility of overseeing financial reporting. A logit regression approach is used to benchmark corporate financial reporting quality against financial reporting standards in the period from 1991 to 2000. Using a sample of companies that have been subject to adverse rulings by the Financial Reporting Review Panel (FRRP), we test the impact of board and audit committee characteristics on the probability of compliance with financial reporting standards. Our results show that independent boards promote audit committee effectiveness in financial reporting and suggest that director share ownership and multiple directorships could undermine audit committee effectiveness in financial reporting. We also suggest that director financial literacy and an "active" audit committee may contribute to audit committee effectiveness.

An Overview of Artificial Immune Systems

Abstract: The immune system is highly distributed, highly adaptive, self-organising in nature, maintains a memory of past encounters and has the ability to continually learn about new encounters. From a computational point of view, the immune system has much to offer by way of inspiration to computer scientists and engineers alike. As computational problems become more complex, increasingly, people are seeking out novel approaches to these problems, often turning to nature for inspiration. A great deal of attention is now being paid to the vertebrate immune system as a potential source of inspiration, where it is thought that different insights and alternative solutions can be gleaned, over and above other biologically inspired methods.

Benchmarking Audit Committee Effectiveness in Financial Reporting

Abstract: This paper examines the effectiveness of UK audit committees in their primary responsibility of overseeing financial reporting. A logit regression approach is used to benchmark corporate financial reporting quality against financial reporting standards in the period from 1991 to 2000. Using a sample of companies that have been subject to adverse rulings by the Financial Reporting Review Panel (FRRP), we test the impact of board and audit committee characteristics on the probability of compliance with financial reporting standards. Our results show that independent boards promote audit committee effectiveness in financial reporting and suggest that director share ownership and multiple directorships could undermine audit committee effectiveness in financial reporting. We also suggest that director financial literacy and an ‘active’ audit committee may contribute to audit committee effectiveness.

Booster Disinfection of Water Supply Networks: Multiobjective Approach

Abstract: Booster disinfection is the addition of disinfectant at some critical locations of a water distribution network such that disinfectant residuals are maintained at a level greater than the minimum for public health. Compared to conventional methods that apply disinfectant only at the source, booster disinfection can reduce the total disinfectant dose. The present work investigates the booster facility location and injection scheduling problem in water distribution networks. The problem is formulated as a multiobjective optimization model. The objectives are minimization of the total disinfectant dose and maximization of the volumetric demand within specified residual limits. Multiobjective genetic algorithms are used for solving the problem. The model utilizes the theory of linear superposition in water quality modeling for calculating concentration profiles at network nodes. Unlike previous models, the present multiobjective approach does not require pruning of monitoring nodes to find feasible solutions; all demand nodes are considered as monitoring nodes. Application of the model to an example problem reveals that there is a critical point in the level of constraint satisfaction, after which the disinfectant dosage rate increases significantly in order to satisfy a few remaining constraints.

How Children and Their Families Construct and Negotiate Risk, Safety and Danger

Abstract: This article presents an analysis of the family context and everyday negotiations around risk, safety and danger between children and parents in four families drawn from a larger qualitative study. The challenges of analysing accounts from several family members are highlighted. Case study families are described; and fragments of their interwoven individual and shared biographies, on which respondents regularly drew to legitimate risk-related beliefs and practices, are outlined. The dynamic, fluid and contingent nature of risk construction and reconstruction in everyday family life is discussed and three main themes explored: establishing ‘the bottom line’; assumptions, collusions and contradictions around age, siblinghood and time; and contextualizing risk in the conduct of others. The authors conclude that, just as with childhood itself, it is important also to contextualize ‘risk’ within socioeconomic, cultural and institutional frameworks; and that, for most children, their families both constitute one such context and mediate wider social structures.

Measuring presence in virtual environments

Abstract: This demonstration presents findings from two studies on presence that use a new technology for developing photo-realistic virtual environments. Our studies have used a combination of qualitative and quantitative measures, and in doing so have pointed to the importance of exploring place as part of presence. The demonstration explores issues of presence in such environments and the range of data capture methods we used and methodological issues found..

Avoiding the 'McJobs': unemployed job seekers and attitudes to service work

Abstract: Service employment plays an increasingly important role in the UK economy. However, it has been suggested that some forms of service work are unattractive for many unemployed job seekers, and parti...

Making portfolios work in practice

Abstract: Background A portfolio captures learning from experience, enables an assessor to measure student learning, acts as a tool for reflective thinking, illustrates critical analytical skills and evidence of self-directed learning and provides a collection of detailed evidence of a person's competence Aims This paper reports data on how assessors and nursing students match learning outcomes and/or competencies to their practice and then reconstruct those experiences into the format required by the portfolio documentation The data were gathered as part of a larger study to evaluate the use of portfolios in the assessment of learning and competence in England Methods This three phase stakeholder evaluation was designed to gain the views of those involved in designing, implementing and using portfolios in nurse education In phase 2, 122 students and 58 nurse teachers were interviewed about their perceptions of portfolio use, and a further 32 students and 26 assessors were interviewed after they had been observed taking part in an assessment process Thematic data analysis was used Findings Assessors and students underwent a complex process of deconstructing learning outcomes/competences to fit these to their practice These then had to be reconstructed through the written medium to fit the structure of the portfolio Confirmation that this met teachers’ expectations was essential to allay feelings of insecurity Conclusions To achieve maximum benefit from the portfolio as a learning tool to link theory and practice, there needs to be a clear fit between the model of portfolio and the professional practice that is to be assessed Outcomes and competences, as well as the type of evidence required to demonstrate their achievement, and integration of the whole experience should match the students’ stage of professional and academic development Over-complex approaches to practice assessment, particularly in the early stages of students’ careers, can detract from clinical learning in favour of learning how to complete the portfolio successfully

Genotype × environment interactions in transplanted clones of the massive corals Favia speciosa and Diploastrea heliopora

Abstract: Environment-dependent variation in the morphological, physiological, or behavioural ex- pression of a genotype is termed phenotypic plasticity. To test for small-scale morphological plasticity in the Indo-Pacific massive corals Favia speciosa (Dana, 1846) and Diploastrea heliopora (Lamark, 1816), fragments (clone-mates) from 12 colonies of each species were reciprocally transplanted among 6 new habitats located within 2 environmental gradients: a depth cline and a nearshore-to-offshore gradient in sedimentation rates and total suspended solids (TSS). After 7 mo, all fragments were col- lected, cleared of tissue, and 10 morphometric characters extracted from randomly chosen corallites. Reaction norms, analysis of variance, and canonical discriminant analysis describe environment- induced changes in corallite architecture. These changes are more pronounced in the depth cline than along the sediment gradient. Similarity of response is suggested by exploratory factor analysis where, for both species, size attributes dominate the first factor, antisymmetry the second, and corallite exser- tion the third. Highly significant genotype × environment interactions for F. speciosa indicate that, for this species, genotypes vary in the level of plasticity expressed. Light and TSS emerge as the primary correlates influencing morphological change, although other parameters might act additively, syner- gystically or antagonistically with them. In shallow waters, increased corallite exsertion may enhance light capture or, alternatively, protect the central (oral disc) area of each polyp from harmful UV radi- ation. Morphological variability, combined with environment-induced changes in pigmentation, could impede accurate identification of these taxa.

What influences the timing of the introduction of solid food to infants

Abstract: The aim of the present study was to assess the factors which may influence the timing of the introduction of solid food to infants. The design was a prospective cohort study by interview and postal questionnaire. Primiparous women (n 541) aged between 16 and 40 years were approached in the Forth Park Maternity Hospital, Fife, Scotland. Of these, 526 women agreed to participate and seventy-eight were used as subjects in the pilot study. At 12 weeks we interviewed 338 women of the study sample. The postal questionnaire was returned by 286 of 448 volunteers. At 12 weeks 133 of 338 mothers said that they had introduced solids. Those that said that they had introduced solids early ( 12 weeks) by bivariate and multiple regression analysis. Psychosocial factors influencing the decision were measured with the main outcome measure being the time of introduction of solid food. The early introduction of solids was found to be associated with: the opinions of the infant's maternal grandmother; living in a deprived area; personal disagreement with the advice to wait until the baby was 4 months; lack of encouragement from friends to wait until the baby was 4 months; being in receipt of free samples of manufactured food. Answers to open-ended questions indicated that the early introduction appeared to be influenced by the mothers' perceptions of the baby's needs. Some of the factors influencing a woman's decision to introduce solids are amenable to change, and these could be targeted in educational interventions.

Mangrove fish: a comparison of community structure between forested and cleared habitats

Abstract: The fish communities of mangrove and cleared sites were investigated in Gazi Bay, Kenya. Five forested sites were compared with paired sites that had been cleared of mangroves by human activity. Forested sites included plantations and natural stands of Sonneratia alba and natural Rhizophora mucronata stands. Two methods of stake netting were used to take quantitative samples; method one used a single 100-m-long, 18-mm mesh net, method two used paired 24-m-long, 1-mm mesh nets—samples were taken during seven different months in 2002. Mean abundances of fish found in mangrove and cleared sites, respectively, were 0.004 m−2 and 0.014 m−2 (method 1) and 0.21 m−2 and 0.25 m−2 (method 2). Thirty species were sampled, 12 of which were found exclusively in mangrove habitats and 10 of which were limited to cleared sites. The most abundant species in mangrove plots was Atherina afra (although it was only found in two, large catches); the most abundant in cleared plots was Gerres oyena (found frequently). Mean abundance (using data pooled for all sites) was significantly higher in cleared, compared with forested, sites, and multivariate analysis showed significantly different community structures in the two habitat types. There was large variation in catch rates between dates and sites, with one forested site recording no catches at all. These results do not support the predator refuge hypothesis (which predicts higher abundance of juvenile fish inside mangroves). The low abundance of fish recorded in the mangrove sites may have been due to site-specific factors determining fish abundance within mangrove forests, to the sampling techniques used or to relatively high turbidities at these sites.

The Past, Present, and Future of Information Policy: Towards a normative theory of the information society

Abstract: The profile of information policy in academic and policy-making circles has been rising in recent decades, a function, presumably, of the expansion of an ‘information society’. Nevertheless, there is widespread confusion over its meaning and purpose. This paper seeks to produce a clearer picture, building on useful groundwork in information science and other disciplines. The history of information policy is traced, featuring exposition of the pioneering contribution of Marc Porat in the 1970s. The present state of information policy is then described, with particular reference to some salient themes of current literature: issue inventories (i.e. the scope of information policy); academic identity (including a critique of attempts to appropriate information policy for one discipline); and the ideal – or, it is argued, illusion – of a ‘national information policy’. In the final section of the paper, some suggestions are made for the future direction of information policy. First, information policy should en...

Could we live with reintroduced large carnivores in the UK

Abstract: 1. Literature on the wolf Canis lupus, brown bear Ursus arctos and lynx Lynx lynx is reviewed to determine if sufficient semi-natural habitat exists in the UK for a viable population of any of these species and to assess the potential risks to human safety, livestock and economically valuable wildlife. Public attitudes to the recovery and reintroduction of some other mammals are also briefly reviewed. 2. The large home range sizes and low population densities of large carnivores mean that the Scottish Highlands is the only UK region with the potential to support a viable population. Human population density is also lower in the Highlands and the density of wild ungulate prey higher than in many parts of Europe where large carnivores survive. 3. Attacks on people have been recorded in Europe for healthy bears and for rabid bears and wolves but there are no reports of attacks by lynx. Bears are more carnivorous in the north of their range than in the south and although wild mammals seldom appear to be important prey serious predation of livestock can occur. Livestock predation is also reported for the wolf and the lynx but they appear to prefer wild prey if available. However, mass kills of up to 100 or more sheep are occasionally recorded for wolves. 4. Attitudes to reintroductions and carnivores generally tend to be favourable amongst the general public, but negative amongst those most likely to be adversely affected. Fears for human safety and significant livestock predation with bears and wolves, respectively, suggest that reintroduction of these species is unlikely to be acceptable in the foreseeable future. Reintroduction of the lynx may be feasible but habitat suitability and potential impact on vulnerable native wildlife need to be assessed. Socio-economic and legal issues also need to be addressed before such a reintroduction is considered.

Scaling of bird claws

Abstract: The claw geometry of birds can be used to predict their mode of life. Previous studies, however, have not considered how bird size might affect these predictions. Thus, in the present study, the geometric scaling relationships of bird claws are examined for a variety of extant birds with different modes of life: predatory, climbing, perching or ground-dwelling. Measurements of hind-limb claw radius (i.e. claw size) and claw angle (i.e. claw ‘hookedness’) of the third digit claw were made on 120 species of bird ranging from 0.0057 kg to 44 kg in body mass. Claw radius was found to be proportional to (body mass)0.34 across all species. Claw angle was found to increase with body mass for predatory and climbing birds (i.e. bigger birds have relatively more hooked claws), and decrease with body mass for ground-dwelling birds (i.e. bigger birds have relatively less hooked or flatter claws). No significant relationship was found between claw angle and body mass for perching birds. Mode of life could not be predicted with any certainty using measurements of either claw radius or claw angle, suggesting difficulty in assigning fossil species such as Archaeopteryx to a specific locomotor category. As claw design should enable the claw to withstand the forces placed upon it, further work is needed to establish the stresses experienced by the claws of different types of bird.

Consumer confusion: reduction strategies in higher education

Abstract: This paper highlights the increasingly important topic of consumer confusion. Drawing parallels with experiences in the private sector, the concept of consumer confusion is explored within the higher education sector; what causes the phenomenon, how do consumers react to it and how can it be negated/minimised? The expansion and commercialisation of higher education has seen the wide‐scale adoption of marketing techniques within the sector. Such actions generate increased capacity for consumer confusion, with consumers being overwhelmed with information and potentially making sub‐optimum decisions. Given that the selection of a degree course is normally a life changing event, careful consideration needs to be given, by all parties, to whether marketing helps or hinders this process. While focusing on higher education, the issues considered are equally applicable to any public sector body adopting a more market driven approach.

Belonging and otherness: sex equality in banking in Turkey and Britain.

Abstract: The struggle for sex equality at work has largely been achieved in the developed world, it is claimed. The number of well-qualified young women entering white-collar employment and achieving promotion to first-line and middle management positions now matches or exceeds their male peers. Many young women have high career aspirations and argue that sex discrimination no longer exists. However, this perception is over-optimistic. Major sex inequalities persist at senior management level in the salaries and benefits offered to female and male staff and in access to certain favoured occupations and sectors of employment. Questionnaires, interviews and documentary evidence from three Turkish and six British banks and high street financial organizations showed that their claimed commitment to equal opportunities by sex was not matched by their practices. Members of managerial elites (who were almost exclusively male) held firm views about the characteristics of ‘the ideal worker’, which informed organizational ideologies, including human resource policies and practices concerning recruitment and promotion. They also permeated organizational cultures, which affected employees’ working practices and experiences. The outcome of these internal negotiation processes was to differentiate between a favoured group of staff seen as fully committed to the companies’ values, who were promoted and rewarded, and an ‘out’ group, whose members were denied these privileges. This distinction between ‘belonging’ and ‘otherness’ is gendered not only along the traditional lines of class, age, sexual orientation, religion and physical ability, but also along the new dimensions of marriage, networking, safety, mobility and space. Despite local and cross-cultural differences in the significance of these factors, the cumulative disadvantage suffered by women staff seeking career development in the industry was remarkably similar