Showing papers by "Stony Brook University published in 1972"

Commitment, choice and self-control

Abstract: When offered a choice (Choice Y) between a small immediate reward (2-sec exposure to grain) and a large reward (4-sec exposure to grain) delayed by 4 sec, pigeons invariably preferred the small, immediate reward. However, when offered a choice (Choice X) between a delay of T seconds followed by Choice Y and a delay of T seconds followed by restriction to the large delayed reward only, the pigeon's choice depended on T. When T was small, the pigeons chose the alternative leading to Choice Y (and then chose the small, immediate reward). When T was large, the pigeons chose the alternative leading to the large delayed reward only. The reversal of preference as T increases is predicted by several recent models for choice between various amounts and delays of reward. The preference for the large delayed alternative with long durations of T parallels everyday instances of advance commitment to a given course of action. Such commitment may be seen as a prototype for self-control.

Community structure and species diversity of hermatypic corals at Eilat, Red Sea

Abstract: This study investigates the community structure of reefbulding corals in terms of species composition, zonation and diversity patterns, as well as possible factors affecting the observed distributions. The study was carried out by a series of line transects run underwater with SCUBA apparatus from the reef flat to a depth of 30 m. The reefs of Eilat are of the fringing type, with seleractinian corals as the most important hermatypic organisms. The different zones of the reef are analyzed on the basis of topographical characteristics of the reef, as well as from the numerical data on abundance and living coverage, using cluster analysis of all transects surveyed. The present knowledge concerning species diversity is reviewed and analyzed in the context of hermatypic coral data. Three different diversity indices (the species count, Simpson's index and Shannon and Weaver's index) were calculated for estimating the diversity obtained on different zones of the reef. It was found that there is a successive increase in diversity of hermatypic corals from shallow water to a depth of 30 m. Species diversity and living voverage of corals were significantly greater in steeper zones as compared to flatter zones of the reef. A possible explanation for this phenomenon is the accumulation of sediments in the flat zones. It is proposed that the severe and umpredictable nature of the reef flat may account for low abundance and living coverage of corals. It is also proposed that deep-water species which do not invade shallow water are species which have developed high specialization to their local environment. The idea that light intensity is a significant factor in calcium-carbonate deposition by scleractinian corals is supported by field measurements of individual colonies at different depths.

Neutron spectroscopy of superconductors

Abstract: A complete understanding of the mechanism for superconductivity requires knowledge of the details of electrons, phonons, and their interactions, and can be summarized by the function ${\ensuremath{\alpha}}^{2}F(\ensuremath{\omega})$. This function is often very similar to the phonon density of states $F(\ensuremath{\omega})=\ensuremath{\Sigma}\ensuremath{\delta}(\ensuremath{\omega}\ensuremath{-}{\ensuremath{\omega}}_{Q})$, which can be derived from an analysis of neutron-scattering data. In this paper it is pointed out that the complete function ${\ensuremath{\alpha}}^{2}F(\ensuremath{\omega})$ is also (in principle) contained in neutron-scattering data if the intrinsic linewidth ${\ensuremath{\gamma}}_{Q}$ is measured as well as the dispersion relation ${\ensuremath{\omega}}_{Q}$. It is shown that ${\ensuremath{\alpha}}^{2}F$ differs from $F$ by having a weighting factor $\frac{2{\ensuremath{\gamma}}_{Q}}{\ensuremath{\pi}N{(0)}_{\ensuremath{\omega}}}$ inside the summation, where $N(0)$ is the electronic density of states at the Fermi surface for both spin orientations. The dimensionless coupling constant $\ensuremath{\lambda}$ can also be expressed in terms of $N(0)$, ${\ensuremath{\omega}}_{Q}$, and ${\ensuremath{\gamma}}_{Q}$. In practice, for most superconductors, the average widths ${\ensuremath{\gamma}}_{Q}$ are smaller than presently available resolution. However, for materials with a high density of states like $\ensuremath{\beta}\ensuremath{-}W$ superconductors, the widths ${\ensuremath{\gamma}}_{Q}$ may be measurable. Also, the question of whether superconductivity arises predominantly from coupling to certain groups of phonons can be answered experimentally by searching for anomalously large widths. Estimates of average phonon widths are given for a variety of metals.

Current behavior modification in the classroom: be still, be quiet, be docile

Abstract: Classrooms have recently been criticized as total institutions where there is a rigid preoccupation with order and control, and where children are required to be still, to be silent, and to obey. Behavior modification has been described as a major source of change in the classroom. A review of this journal's papers on behavior modification in the classroom indicated that inappropriate behavior has been consistently defined as behavior that interferes with order, quiet, and stillness. It is argued therefore, that behavior modification has supported rather than changed the questionable status quo. Alternative areas for behavior modification in traditional classrooms and the role of behavior modification in the development of open classrooms are discussed.

Effects of alternative reinforcement: does the source matter?

Abstract: In a chamber with a single response key, pigeon's key pecks were reinforced with food according to a variable-interval schedule. In addition, extra reinforcements occurred concurrently according to an independent schedule. In one condition, availability of the extra reinforcements was signalled by a change in key color from white to red. The extra reinforcements occurred after a peck on the red key. In a second condition, the extra reinforcements were unsignalled and occurred only after a 2-sec pause in pecking for one group of subjects and were unsignalled and occurred freely as scheduled for another group of subjects. In the first two conditions, duration of reinforcement was varied. A third condition duplicated the second but varied rate rather than duration of reinforcement. The rate of pecking varied inversely with the amount of extra reinforcement per unit time according to the same function, regardless of the condition regulating occurrence of the extra reinforcements, and regardless of whether or not a 2-sec pause was required for their occurrence. The shape of this function was predicted by Herrnstein's (1970) matching law.

Quartz diorites derived by partial melting of eclogite or amphibolite at mantle depths

Abstract: Rare earth elements, Rb, Sr, Ba and K have been determined in tonalite, trondhjemite, dacite, tholeiite and graywacke from the 2700 my old Early Precambrian greenstone-granite terrane of northeastern Minnesota-northwestern Ontario, and also in trondhjemite from the 3550 my old Morton Gneiss, southwestern Minnesota; and the Mesozoic Craggy Peak Pluton, Klamath Mountains, California The Early Precambrian tholeiites have trace element compositions similar to modern oceanic tholeiites, while the quartz dioritic rocks, regardless of age, have total rare earth contents lower than that of tholeiitic basalts, with near chondritic heavy rare earth contents Rb, Sr, Ba and K contents of the quartz diorites are about five times that of oceanic tholeiites, with similar alkali and alkaline earth ratios The Early Precambrian graywacke has a rare earth content intermediate between greenstone and quartz diorite, reflecting its provenance It is proposed that the analyzed quartz dioritic rocks, whether plutonic tonalite, dacite porphyry, gneissic or plutonic trondhjemite, or trondhjemite dikes had similar modes of origin, and were derived by partial melting of amphibolite or eclogite of basaltic or gabbroic composition at depths greater than thirty kilometers, leaving a residue consisting predominantly of garnet and clinopyroxene

Algal Mats, Cryptalgal Fabrics, and Structures, Hamelin Pool, Western Australia: ABSTRACT

Abstract: Cryptalgal sediments and structures in Hamelin Pool, Western Australia, are formed by interactions between blue-green algae, which trap and bind sediment particles, and a variety of mechanical and diagenetic processes. The algae form a cohesive mat that tends to cover intertidal, supratidal, and some shallow subtidal surfaces. The mat is differentiated into seven intergradational types as an expression of variations in algal species present, ratio of filamentous to unicellular forms, quantity of mucilaginous matrix, life habits, and quantity and nature of the host sediment. The distribution of mat types is controlled by environmental factors such as elevation of substrate, drainage, depth and nature of interstitial groundwater, and sediment influx. In tidal flats with gen le gradients, there is a broad zonation of mat types, whereas the mat is highly differentiated and has a condensed, patchy development of types on headlands and locations with irregular topography. The sediments trapped and/or bound by the algal-mat communities are imprinted with distinctive fabrics. These fabrics, which can be related to specific mat types, reflect a complex interaction between the algae and processes of sedimentation and diagenesis. Important factors in the development of fabric are surface texture and internal structure of the mat, rate and frequency of sediment influx, and processes such as oxidation, cementation, and lithification. Changes in mat type with changes in environmental conditions (e.g., shoaling and sediment influx) lead to the development of successions of fabrics in the sediment pile. The mat-sediment complex is shaped by physical factors into a variety of structures: (1) extensive flat-lying sheets, (2) ridge and rill structure, (3) rings and crescents, (4) linked ellipsoids and columns, (5) discrete ellipsoidal and circular columns, and (6) calyx and tiered calyx structures. The size range of structures varies from a few centimeters to several meters; confluent and branched structures also are common. The gross morphology of the structures is largely independent of the mat type (or types) involved in the primary trapping and/or binding processes. Major environmental factors involved in shaping of structures are waves, currents, substrate gradient, and long-term sea-level change; minor factors include burial, exhumation, growth of epiphytes, activity of browsing organisms, gas evolution, corrosion, precipitation, desiccation, and variation in sediment type. These factors also influence the external surface texture of structures.

Reward, cost, and self-evaluation procedures for disruptive adolescents in a psychiatric hospital school.

Abstract: Sixteen pupils in a psychiatric hospital were assigned to two tutorial reading classes and balanced on six pupil characteristics and teacher preferences for the children. The effects of reward and cost procedures in a token program were assessed using both within- and between-subject comparisons in the following phases: (1) Baseline; (2) Token I, teacher evaluated and reinforced children for appropriate behavior; (3) Withdrawal of Tokens; (4) Token II, same as Token I; (5) Token III, same as Token I and II, but switched order of class meeting time; and (6) Self-Evaluation, students rated their own behavior and received prizes based on their rating, rather than the teacher's rating. The token program was markedly successful in reducing disruptive behavior and in increasing reading skills in both the Reward and Cost Classes, but there were no significant differences in the effects of the reward versus the cost procedure. While cost may be seen as a punishment procedure, there were no adverse side effects observed in the Cost Class at any time when the token program was in effect. The order of the classes was unrelated to the level of disruptive behavior or academic progress. The Self-Evaluative Phase, in which the students rated their own behavior, was included as an alternative to the abrupt withdrawal of tokens. In this phase, disruptive behavior remained at the previous low level.

Spontaneously Broken Gauge Symmetries. I. Preliminaries

Abstract: This is the first of a series of papers addressed to the renormalizability question of spontaneously broken gauge theories. We give a brief outline of the motivation for such an investigation and describe the manner in which the renormalizability of such theories will be proved in the sequel. Put briefly, we will show that in an appropriate gauge, ultraviolet divergences of a spontaneously broken gauge theory are removed completely by the gauge-invariant counterterms in the Lagrangian which would make the Greon's functions of the corresponding unbroken gauge theory finite, that the $S$ matrix computed in this gauge is unitary, and that the $S$ matrix is independent of the gauge chosen. In this paper, the renormalizability question of the unbroken gauge theory is considered. We derive the Ward-Takahashi identities of the theory. We discuss several ways of regulating divergent Feynman integrals of the theory without destroying gauge invariance. Infrared divergences are avoided by the device of intermediate renormalization, wherein we choose as subtraction points some points where external momenta are Euclidean. This suffices to establish that the Bogoliubov-Parasiuk-Hepp renormalization will give renormalized Green's functions which satisfy the Ward-Takahashi identities. The existence of finite, renormalized Green's functions satisfying the Ward-Takahashi identities provides us with the means of proving the renormalizability of the spontaneously broken symmetry case. The Ward-Takahashi identities were previously derived for the gauge bosons by Slavnov. We present here a new derivation. The discussions on regularization methods and intermediate renormalization procedure and the renormalization conditions for matter fields, we believe, are new contributions of the present paper.

A Test of a Partial Theory of Potential for Political Violence

Abstract: Potential for political violence is defined by a summated scale built from two cumulative scales measuring approval of and readiness to engage in behaviors which constitute progressively greater challenge to a political regime. A prevalent explanation of potential for political violence proposes that the major direct antecedent is relative deprivation. The partial theory proposed here does not assign a central role to relative deprivation; rather, diffuse support for the political authority structure, and belief that political violence has led to goal attainment in the past, are proposed as major direct antecedents. Relative deprivation is denned by position on the Cantril Self-Anchoring scale with respect to three welfare values. The measure of diffuse affect for the political authority structure is a weighted summation of items measuring the degree to which political authorities are believed to wield power honestly, benevolently, and justly. Belief that political violence has led to goal attainment is denned as a summation of items measuring the degree to which the use of political violence by dissident groups is thought to have been helpful. The data base is a sample of a population in which instances of political violence have been frequent in the past. A linear additive model of Potential for Political Violence, with Trust in Political Authorities and Efficacy of Past Violence as describing variables, shows an accuracy of prediction which is satisfactory and superior to that yielded by a multiplicative model.

Some Immediate Effects of Televised Violence on Children's Behavior.

Abstract: The hypothesis that exposure to televised violence would increase the willingness of children to hurt another child was investigated. Boys and girls of two age groups (5-6 and 8-9 years) first viewed excerpts from actual television programs depicting either aggresive or nonaggressive scenes, and were then provided with an opportunity to aggress against a peer. All subjects were subsequently placed in a free play situation and the frequency of their aggressive responses observed. Results indicated that children exposed to the aggressive program engaged in longer attacks against an ostensible child victim than subjects exposed to the nonaggressive program. The aggressive program also elicited a higher level of aggressive play than the nonaggressive one, particularly among the younger boys.

Control of Diastolic Blood Pressure in Man by Feedback and Reinforcement.

Abstract: : When provided with external feedback of their diastolic blood pressure and incentives to respond appropriately, normal male subjects learned to raise or lower their diastolic pressure in a 35-min training session. The differences between increase and decrease groups at the end of conditioning was 7.0 mm Hg or 10% of baseline. This difference was augmented to 10.4 mm Hg or 15% of 'voluntary control' even though feedback and incentives were withdrawn. Heart rate was also influenced by the conditioning of diastolic pressure although less markedly. Further analysis indicated that when diastolic pressure is reinforced heart rate is partially reinforced in the same direction, accounting for the coincidental conditioning of the related cardiovascular measure. No consistent changes in respiration or post-session verbal reports were obtained. These results lend support to the possibility of therapeutic application of the techniques in patients with essential hypertension. (Author)

Behavioral economics: areas of cooperative research between economics and applied behavioral analysis.

Abstract: The current research methods of behavioral economics are characterized by inadequate empirical foundations. Psychologists involved in the experimental analysis of behavior with their research strategies and their experimental technology, particularly that of the Token Economy, can assist in providing empirical foundations for behavioral economics. Cooperative research between economists and psychologists to this end should be immediately fruitful and mutually beneficial.

Molecular basis of a mutational hot spot in the lysozyme gene of bacteriophage T4.

Abstract: Investigation of reversion rates and sequencing of amino-acids has shown that one mutational hot spot in bacteriophage T4 is probably a sequence of six identical bases