Showing papers by "Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology published in 2011"
TL;DR: Size-exclusion chromatography in combination with organic carbon detection (SEC-OCD) is an established method to separate the pool of NOM into major fractions of different sizes and chemical functions and to quantify these on the basis of organic carbon.
1,161 citations
TL;DR: Results from batch experiments suggested that Ag-NP transformation to Ag(2)S occured in the nonaerated tank within less than 2 h, which must be considered in future risk assessments.
Abstract: We investigated the behavior of metallic silver nanoparticles (Ag-NP) in a pilot wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) fed with municipal wastewater. The treatment plant consisted of a nonaerated and an aerated tank and a secondary clarifier. The average hydraulic retention time including the secondary clarifier was 1 day and the sludge age was 14 days. Ag-NP were spiked into the nonaerated tank and samples were collected from the aerated tank and from the effluent. Ag concentrations determined by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) were in good agreement with predictions based on mass balance considerations. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analyses confirmed that nanoscale Ag particles were sorbed to wastewater biosolids, both in the sludge and in the effluent. Freely dispersed nanoscale Ag particles were only observed in the effluent during the initial pulse spike. X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) measurements indicated that most Ag in the sludge and in the effluent was present a...
705 citations
Goddard Institute for Space Studies1, Max Planck Society2, National Center for Atmospheric Research3, Aix-Marseille University4, University of Edinburgh5, Joseph Fourier University6, University of Bern7, Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research8, Lund University9, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology10, University of Orléans11
TL;DR: In this article, the authors describe the approach taken in defining the scenarios used in the PMIP3, document the forcing reconstructions and discuss likely implications and discuss the likely implications.
Abstract: Simulations of climate over the Last Millennium (850-1850 CE) have been incorporated into the third phase of the Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project (PMIP3). The drivers of climate over this period are chiefly orbital, solar, volcanic, changes in land use/land cover and some variation in greenhouse gas levels. While some of these effects can be easily defined, the reconstructions of solar, volcanic and land use-related forcing are more uncertain. We describe here the approach taken in defining the scenarios used in PMIP3, document the forcing reconstructions and discuss likely implications.
452 citations
TL;DR: The journal Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions (EIST) as mentioned in this paper is a journal dedicated to the study of sustainability transitions, and its key terms, policy issues and research challenges are surveyed.
Abstract: This article introduces the new journal Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions (EIST). We consider its key terms and offer a survey of relevant theoretical and empirical insights, policy issues and research challenges. Four theoretical approaches to studying sustainability transitions are identified. The treatise ends with a synopsis of the 19 articles in this inaugural issue and a list of suggested research themes.
434 citations
TL;DR: The available data strongly support various diversifying effects that emerge from interactions between sexual selection and environmental heterogeneity and it is suggested that evaluating the evolutionary consequences of these effects requires a better integration of behavioural, ecological and evolutionary research.
Abstract: The spectacular diversity in sexually selected traits among animal taxa has inspired the hypothesis that divergent sexual selection can drive speciation. Unfortunately, speciation biologists often consider sexual selection in isolation from natural selection, even though sexually selected traits evolve in an ecological context: both preferences and traits are often subject to natural selection. Conversely, while behavioural ecologists may address ecological effects on sexual communication, they rarely measure the consequences for population divergence. Herein, we review the empirical literature addressing the mechanisms by which natural selection and sexual selection can interact during speciation. We find that convincing evidence for any of these scenarios is thin. However, the available data strongly support various diversifying effects that emerge from interactions between sexual selection and environmental heterogeneity. We suggest that evaluating the evolutionary consequences of these effects requires a better integration of behavioural, ecological and evolutionary research.
418 citations
TL;DR: It is proposed to synthesize the breadth of the articles in this special issue by suggesting some changes to the risk governance framework proposed by the International Risk Governance Council (IRGC) and adding some insights to its analytical and normative implications.
Abstract: The term governance describes the multitude of actors and processes that lead to collectively binding decisions. The term risk governance translates the core principles of governance to the context of risk-related policy making. We aim to delineate some basic lessons from the insights of the other articles in this special issue for our understanding of risk governance. Risk governance provides a conceptual as well as normative basis for how to cope with uncertain, complex and/or ambiguous risks. We propose to synthesize the breadth of the articles in this special issue by suggesting some changes to the risk governance framework proposed by the International Risk Governance Council (IRGC) and adding some insights to its analytical and normative implications.
407 citations
TL;DR: No DOM-induced reduction in second-order rate constant could be observed in competition kinetics experiments for the reaction of hydroxyl radical with a series of 15 organic compounds, covering several classes of aromatic contaminants, indicating that Suwannee River fulvic acid (SRFA) used as reference DOM does not affect this reaction mechanism.
Abstract: Dissolved organic matter (DOM) has recently been shown to reduce the transformation rate of various aqueous organic contaminants submitted to oxidation by excited triplet states, apparently by inhibiting the transformation of oxidation intermediates. The main goals of the present study were to evaluate in more detail the effect of concentration and type of DOM on the triplet-induced transformation rate of four selected organic compounds and to check for an analogous inhibition effect in the case of oxidation induced by hydroxyl radical. A marked inhibition by DOM of triplet-induced oxidation was observed for N,N-dimethylaniline (DMA) and the two antibiotics sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and trimethoprim (TRI), with DOM of terrestrial origin being a more effective inhibitor than DOM of aquatic origin. The results are important to understand the role of DOM both as a photosensitizer and as an inhibitor for the triplet-induced transformation of aquatic contaminants. In contrast, no DOM-induced reduction in second-order rate constant could be observed in competition kinetics experiments for the reaction of hydroxyl radical with a series of 15 organic compounds, covering several classes of aromatic contaminants, indicating that Suwannee River fulvic acid (SRFA) used as reference DOM does not affect this reaction mechanism.
402 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors evaluated the ecotoxicological potential of the 100 pharmaceuticals expected to occur in highest quantities in the wastewater of a general hospital and a psychiatric center in Switzerland, and related the toxicity data to predicted concentrations in different wastewater streams to assess the overall risk potential for different scenarios, including conventional biological pretreatment in the hospital and urine source separation.
400 citations
Vanderbilt University1, Shizuoka University2, Arizona State University3, University of Oxford4, University of Gothenburg5, Pierre-and-Marie-Curie University6, Imperial College London7, McMaster University8, Institute of Science and Technology Austria9, University of Groningen10, Aarhus University11, University of Maryland, College Park12, University of Colorado Boulder13, University of California, Irvine14, University of Exeter15, University of Lausanne16, University of New Mexico17, University of Cambridge18, Australian National University19, University of Houston20, University of Edinburgh21, University of California, Santa Barbara22, Princeton University23, University of Chicago24, Montana State University25, Simon Fraser University26, Villanova University27, Queen's University28, Cornell University29, University of Louisville30, United States Department of Agriculture31, École Normale Supérieure32, University of Sussex33, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich34, University of Kentucky35, Flinders University36, Michigan State University37, Georgia Institute of Technology38, University of California, Davis39, Pennsylvania State University40, University of Toronto41, University of Sheffield42, University of Regensburg43, University of Helsinki44, University of Vermont45, VU University Amsterdam46, University of Osnabrück47, Harvard University48, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology49, University of Copenhagen50, Royal Holloway, University of London51, University of California, Santa Cruz52, University of Arizona53, University of Oklahoma54, University of Texas at Austin55, University of Strasbourg56, University of Bristol57, University of Liverpool58, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill59, Rice University60, University of Zurich61, University College London62, Newcastle University63, James Cook University64, University of Montpellier65, University of North Carolina at Greensboro66, University of California, Riverside67, ETH Zurich68, University of St Andrews69, William Paterson University70, University of Michigan71, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign72, University of Bern73, University of Western Ontario74, University of California, Berkeley75, University of the Ryukyus76, University of Florence77, University of Tennessee78, North Carolina State University79, Humboldt University of Berlin80, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven81, Smithsonian Institution82, University of Nevada, Reno83, San Francisco State University84
TL;DR: It is argued that inclusive fitness theory has been of little value in explained the natural world, and that it has led to negligible progress in explaining the evolution of eusociality, but these arguments are based upon a misunderstanding of evolutionary theory and a misrepresentation of the empirical literature.
Abstract: Arising from M. A. Nowak, C. E. Tarnita & E. O. Wilson 466, 1057-1062 (2010); Nowak et al. reply. Nowak et al. argue that inclusive fitness theory has been of little value in explaining the natural world, and that it has led to negligible progress in explaining the evolution of eusociality. However, we believe that their arguments are based upon a misunderstanding of evolutionary theory and a misrepresentation of the empirical literature. We will focus our comments on three general issues.
383 citations
TL;DR: A general unified threshold model for survival (GUTS) is developed, from which a large range of existing models can be derived as special cases and facilitates further improvement in the modeling of survival under chemical stress.
Abstract: Toxicokinetic-toxicodynamic models (TKTD models) simulate the time-course of processes leading to toxic effects on organisms. Even for an apparently simple endpoint as survival, a large number of very different TKTD approaches exist. These differ in their underlying hypotheses and assumptions, although often the assumptions are not explicitly stated. Thus, our first objective was to illuminate the underlying assumptions (individual tolerance or stochastic death, speed of toxicodynamic damage recovery, threshold distribution) of various existing modeling approaches for survival and show how they relate to each other (e.g., critical body residue, critical target occupation, damage assessment, DEBtox survival, threshold damage). Our second objective was to develop a general unified threshold model for survival (GUTS), from which a large range of existing models can be derived as special cases. Specific assumptions to arrive at these special cases are made and explained. Finally, we illustrate how special cases of GUTS can be fitted to survival data. We envision that GUTS will help increase the application of TKTD models in ecotoxicological research as well as environmental risk assessment of chemicals. It unifies a wide range of previously unrelated approaches, clarifies their underlying assumptions, and facilitates further improvement in the modeling of survival under chemical stress.
361 citations
TL;DR: This work demonstrates how effect data for parent compounds can be used in combination with analysis of toxicophore structures and bioconcentration potential to facilitate transformation product effect assessment and integrates existing research into a coherent model-based, risk-driven framework.
Abstract: When micropollutants degrade in the environment, they may form persistent and toxic transformation products, which should be accounted for in the environmental risk assessment of the parent compounds. Transformation products have become a topic of interest not only with regard to their formation in the environment, but also during advanced water treatment processes, where disinfection byproducts can form from benign precursors. In addition, environmental risk assessment of human and veterinary pharmaceuticals requires inclusion of human metabolites as most pharmaceuticals are not excreted into wastewater in their original form, but are extensively metabolized. All three areas have developed their independent approaches to assess the risk associated with transformation product formation including hazard identification, exposure assessment, hazard assessment including dose−response characterization, and risk characterization. This review provides an overview and defines a link among those areas, emphasizing...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine the relationship among the complexity of customer needs, customer centricity, innovativeness, service differentiation, and business performance within the context of companies.
TL;DR: In this article, the feasibility of the black soldier fly larvae to digest and degrade mixed municipal organic waste in a medium-scale field experiment in Costa Rica, and explored the benefits and limitations of this technology.
Abstract: Valorisation of municipal organic waste through larval feeding activity of the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, constitutes a potential benefit, especially for low and middle-income countries. Besides waste reduction and stabilisation, the product in form of the last larval stage, the so-called prepupae, offers a valuable additive in animal feed, opening new economic niches for small entrepreneurs in developing countries. We have therefore evaluated the feasibility of the black soldier fly larvae to digest and degrade mixed municipal organic waste in a medium-scale field experiment in Costa Rica, and explored the benefits and limitations of this technology. We achieved an average prepupae production of 252 g/m2/day (wet weight) under favourable conditions. Waste reduction ranged from 65.5 to 78.9% depending on the daily amount of waste added to the experimental unit and presence/absence of a drainage system. Three factors strongly influenced larval yield and waste reduction capacity: (1) high larval mortality due to elevated zinc concentrations in the waste material and anaerobic conditions in the experimental trays; (2) lack of fertile eggs due to zinc poisoning, and (3) limited access to food from stagnating liquid in the experimental trays. This study confirmed the great potential of this fly as a waste manager in low and middle-income countries, but also identified knowledge gaps pertaining to biological larvae requirements (egg hatching rate, moisture tolerance, …) and process design (drainage, rearing facilities, …) to be tackled in future research.
TL;DR: Calculations showed that collecting the struvite and calcium phosphate precipitated spontaneously due to urea hydrolysis could increase the overall phosphate recovery by at least 40% and could be important to optimize the process.
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TL;DR: A series of recent studies suggest that changes in the operation of water treatment systems during the past decade have had unintended consequences that pose risks to public health and the environment.
Abstract: Keywords: N-Nitrosodimethylamine Ndma ; Water-Treatment ; Chemicals ; Triclosan ; Kinetics Reference EPFL-ARTICLE-167213doi:10.1126/science.1196397View record in Web of Science Record created on 2011-07-01, modified on 2016-08-09
TL;DR: In this article, the authors compared the energy consumption of conventional ozonation and the AOPs O(3)/H(2)O(2), and UV/H( 2)O (2) for transformation of organic micropollutants, namely atrazine (ATR), sulfamethoxazole (SMX) and N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA), in three lakes and a wastewater.
TL;DR: Algal growth test was developed to determine effects of pristine and oxidized CNT on the green algae Chlorella vulgaris and Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata and growth inhibition was highly correlated with the shading of CNT and the agglomeration of algal cells, suggesting that the reduced algal growth might be caused mainly by indirect effects.
Abstract: Due to growing production, carbon nanotubes (CNT) may soon be found in a broad range of products and thus in the environment. In this work, an algal growth test was developed to determine effects of pristine and oxidized CNT on the green algae Chlorella vulgaris and Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata. CNT suspensions were prepared in algal test medium and characterized taking into account the suspension age, the reduced light transmittance of nanoparticle suspensions defined as shading of CNT and quantified by UV/vis spectroscopy, and the agglomeration of the CNT and of the algal cells. Growth inhibition and photosynthetic activity were investigated as end points. Growth of C. vulgaris was inhibited with effect concentrations of 50% (EC50) values of 1.8 mg CNT/L and of 24 mg CNT/L in well dispersed and in agglomerated suspensions, respectively, and 20 mg CNT/L and 36 mg CNT/L for P. subcapitata, respectively. However, the photosynthetic activity was not affected. Growth inhibition was highly correlated with ...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used Monte Carlo simulations to predict micropollutant oxidation and disinfection processes during ozonation in a full-scale reactor treating secondary wastewater effluent for seven ozone doses ranging from 0.21 to 1.24 g O(3) g(-1) dissolved organic carbon (DOC).
Spanish National Research Council1, James Cook University2, ETH Zurich3, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology4, University of Tasmania5, University of Coimbra6, University of Hong Kong7, University of New England (Australia)8, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais9, Ecolab10, University of Toulouse11, University of Toronto12, National University of Comahue13, Monash University14, University of Concepción15, Cornell University16, University of Puerto Rico17, University of Yamanashi18, Egerton University19, Instituto Conmemorativo Gorgas de Estudios de la Salud20, University of Panama21
TL;DR: It is found that climate warming will likely hasten microbial litter decomposition and produce an equivalent decline in detritivore-mediated decomposition rates, which implies consequences for global biogeochemistry and a possible positive climate feedback.
Abstract: The decomposition of plant litter is one of the most important ecosystem processes in the biosphere and is particularly sensitive to climate warming. Aquatic ecosystems are well suited to studying warming effects on decomposition because the otherwise confounding influence of moisture is constant. By using a latitudinal temperature gradient in an unprecedented global experiment in streams, we found that climate warming will likely hasten microbial litter decomposition and produce an equivalent decline in detritivore-mediated decomposition rates. As a result, overall decomposition rates should remain unchanged. Nevertheless, the process would be profoundly altered, because the shift in importance from detritivores to microbes in warm climates would likely increase CO2 production and decrease the generation and sequestration of recalcitrant organic particles. In view of recent estimates showing that inland waters are a significant component of the global carbon cycle, this implies consequences for global biogeochemistry and a possible positive climate feedback.
TL;DR: The present situation in the Red River Delta is a warning for other As-affected regions where groundwater is extensively pumped from uncontaminated aquifer underlying high arsenic aquifers or zones, and a unique probability model based on three-dimensional Quaternary geology is presented.
Abstract: Arsenic contamination of shallow groundwater is among the biggest health threats in the developing world. Targeting uncontaminated deep aquifers is a popular mitigation option although its long-term impact remains unknown. Here we present the alarming results of a large-scale groundwater survey covering the entire Red River Delta and a unique probability model based on three-dimensional Quaternary geology. Our unprecedented dataset reveals that ∼7 million delta inhabitants use groundwater contaminated with toxic elements, including manganese, selenium, and barium. Depth-resolved probabilities and arsenic concentrations indicate drawdown of arsenic-enriched waters from Holocene aquifers to naturally uncontaminated Pleistocene aquifers as a result of > 100 years of groundwater abstraction. Vertical arsenic migration induced by large-scale pumping from deep aquifers has been discussed to occur elsewhere, but has never been shown to occur at the scale seen here. The present situation in the Red River Delta is a warning for other As-affected regions where groundwater is extensively pumped from uncontaminated aquifers underlying high arsenic aquifers or zones.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present an eco-evolutionary model to illustrate linkages between evolutionary change (e.g. phenotypic evolution of producer), ecological interactions and ecosystem processes.
Abstract: At present, the disciplines of evolutionary biology and ecosystem science are weakly integrated. As a result, we have a poor understanding of how the ecological and evolutionary processes that create, maintain, and change biological diversity affect the flux of energy and materials in global biogeochemical cycles. The goal of this article was to review several research fields at the interfaces between ecosystem science, community ecology and evolutionary biology, and suggest new ways to integrate evolutionary biology and ecosystem science. In particular, we focus on how phenotypic evolution by natural selection can influence ecosystem functions by affecting processes at the environmental, population and community scale of ecosystem organization. We develop an eco-evolutionary model to illustrate linkages between evolutionary change (e. g. phenotypic evolution of producer), ecological interactions (e. g. consumer grazing) and ecosystem processes (e. g. nutrient cycling). We conclude by proposing experiments to test the ecosystem consequences of evolutionary changes.
TL;DR: The data suggest that an extremely widespread personality trait in animals can have significant ecological consequences via influencing individual-level migratory behaviour, with bold individuals being more likely to migrate than shy fish.
Abstract: Partial migration, whereby only a fraction of the population migrates, is thought to be the most common type of migration in the animal kingdom, and can have important ecological and evolutionary consequences. Despite this, the factors that influence which individuals migrate and which remain resident are poorly understood. Recent work has shown that consistent individual differences in personality traits in animals can be ecologically important, but field studies integrating personality traits with migratory behaviour are extremely rare. In this study, we investigate the influence of individual boldness, an important personality trait, upon the migratory propensity of roach, a freshwater fish, over two consecutive migration seasons. We assay and individually tag 460 roach and show that boldness influences migratory propensity, with bold individuals being more likely to migrate than shy fish. Our data suggest that an extremely widespread personality trait in animals can have significant ecological consequences via influencing individual-level migratory behaviour.
TL;DR: A meta‐analysis of the comparative evidence finds a small but significant positive overall correlation between sexual selection and speciation rate, however, it is found that effect size estimates are influenced by methodological choices.
Abstract: The spectacular diversity in sexually selected traits in the animal kingdom has inspired the hypothesis that sexual selection can promote species divergence. In recent years, several studies have attempted to test this idea by correlating species richness with estimates of sexual selection across phylogenies. These studies have yielded mixed results and it remains unclear whether the comparative evidence can be taken as generally supportive. Here, we conduct a meta-analysis of the comparative evidence and find a small but significant positive overall correlation between sexual selection and speciation rate. However, we also find that effect size estimates are influenced by methodological choices. Analyses that included deeper phylogenetic nodes yielded weaker correlations, and different proxies for sexual selection showed different relationships with species richness. We discuss the biological and methodological implications of these findings. We argue that progress requires more representative sampling and justification of chosen proxies for sexual selection and speciation rate, as well as more mechanistic approaches.
TL;DR: Qualitative improvements are provided that substantially enhance the reliability of the estimation method--a prerequisite for the application of this technique to meaningfully assess changes in drug consumption and the success of drug intervention strategies in future studies.
TL;DR: Results from heterogeneous and chemically identical particles suggested that surface chemistry, surface coating and chemical composition are likely determinants of nanomaterial toxicity.
Abstract: Engineered nanomaterials display unique properties that may have impact on human health, and thus require a reliable evaluation of their potential toxicity. Here, we performed a standardized in vitro screening of 23 engineered nanomaterials. We thoroughly characterized the physicochemical properties of the nanomaterials and adapted three classical in vitro toxicity assays to eliminate nanomaterial interference. Nanomaterial toxicity was assessed in ten representative cell lines. Six nanomaterials induced oxidative cell stress while only a single nanomaterial reduced cellular metabolic activity and none of the particles affected cell viability. Results from heterogeneous and chemically identical particles suggested that surface chemistry, surface coating and chemical composition are likely determinants of nanomaterial toxicity. Individual cell lines differed significantly in their response, dependent on the particle type and the toxicity endpoint measured.
In vitro toxicity of the analyzed engineered nanomaterials cannot be attributed to a defined physicochemical property. Therefore, the accurate identification of nanomaterial cytotoxicity requires a matrix based on a set of sensitive cell lines and in vitro assays measuring different cytotoxicity endpoints.
TL;DR: In this paper, a conceptual framework for analyzing technological innovation systems (TIS) substructures oriented at specific end-user markets is proposed, and applied to the creation and maturation of different market segments for photovoltaic applications in Germany.
Abstract: The technological innovation systems (TIS) literature has focused strongly on actors, networks and institutions in early development phases of specific technologies. Structures and processes concerned with setting up and developing end-user markets have gained much less attention. Especially in maturing innovation systems, such market-related structures play a decisive role for the long-term success of innovations. The present paper proposes a conceptual framework for analyzing TIS substructures oriented at specific end-user markets. We apply this framework to the creation and maturation of different market segments for photovoltaic applications in Germany. The paper concludes by outlining implications of a more differentiated conceptualization of market processes for TIS research.
TL;DR: A CH(4) mass balance for the deepest basin of Lake Kariba indicated that hot spot ebullitions was the largest atmospheric emission pathway, suggesting that future greenhouse gas budgets for tropical reservoirs should include a spatially well-resolved analysis of ebullition hot spots.
Abstract: Tropical reservoirs have been identified as important methane (CH4) sources to the atmosphere, primarily through turbine and downstream degassing. However, the importance of ebullition (gas bubbling) remains unclear. We hypothesized that ebullition is a disproportionately large CH4 source from reservoirs with dendritic littoral zones because of ebullition hot spots occurring where rivers supply allochthonous organic material. We explored this hypothesis in Lake Kariba (Zambia/Zimbabwe; surface area >5000 km2) by surveying ebullition in bays with and without river inputs using an echosounder and traditional surface chambers. The two techniques yielded similar results, and revealed substantially higher fluxes in river deltas (∼103 mg CH4 m–2 d–1) compared to nonriver bays (<100 mg CH4 m–2 d–1). Hydroacoustic measurements resolved at 5 m intervals showed that flux events varied over several orders of magnitude (up to 105 mg CH4 m–2 d–1), and also identified strong differences in ebullition frequency. Both fa...
TL;DR: In both GAC adsorbers, adsorbability of the remaining NOM fractions, compared on the basis of partition coefficients, increased with decreasing molecular size, suggesting that increasingly larger portions of the internal GAC surface area could be accessed as the size of NOM decreased.
TL;DR: This study shows that the combination of different analytical methods allows detailed quantification of the microbiological activity in drinking water biofilters.
TL;DR: Results from laboratory-scale experiments indicate that process instabilities observed in full scale can be caused by partial inhibition of the ammonia oxidizing bacteria (AOB), while anammox inhibition is a secondary effect due to temporarily reduced O(2) depletion.
Abstract: Efficient nitrogen removal from wastewater containing high concentrations of ammonium but little organic substrate has recently been demonstrated by several full-scale applications of the combined ...