Showing papers by "Temple University published in 2005"

Peer influence on risk taking, risk preference, and risky decision making in adolescence and adulthood: an experimental study.

Abstract: In this study, 306 individuals in 3 age groups--adolescents (13-16), youths (18-22), and adults (24 and older)--completed 2 questionnaire measures assessing risk preference and risky decision making, and 1 behavioral task measuring risk taking. Participants in each age group were randomly assigned to complete the measures either alone or with 2 same-aged peers. Analyses indicated that (a) risk taking and risky decision making decreased with age; (b) participants took more risks, focused more on the benefits than the costs of risky behavior, and made riskier decisions when in peer groups than alone; and (c) peer effects on risk taking and risky decision making were stronger among adolescents and youths than adults. These findings support the idea that adolescents are more inclined toward risky behavior and risky decision making than are adults and that peer influence plays an important role in explaining risky behavior during adolescence.

Boards: Does One Size Fit All?

Abstract: This paper re-examines (1) the relation between firm value and board structure and (2) the factors associated with cross-sectional variation in board structure. Conventional wisdom and existing empirical research suggest that firm value decreases as the size of the firm's board increases, and as the fraction of insiders on the board increases. In this paper, we argue that, contrary to conventional wisdom, some firms may benefit from having larger boards and greater fraction of insiders on the board. Outside directors serve both to monitor top management and to advise the CEO on business strategy. The monitoring role of the board has been studied extensively and the general consensus is that smaller boards are more effective at monitoring. The argument is that smaller groups are more cohesive, more productive, and can monitor the firm more effectively whereas large groups are fraught with problems such as social loafing and higher co-ordination costs. The advisory role of the board, however, has received far less attention. Since one function of board members is to provide advice and counsel to the CEO, we hypothesize that firms that require more advice (more complex firms) will need larger boards. In particular, we hypothesize that larger firms, diversified firms, and firms that rely more on debt financing, will derive greater firm value from having larger boards. Similarly, certain kinds of firms might benefit from higher insider representation on the board. Inside directors possess more firm-specific knowledge. Thus we conjecture that firms for which the firm-specific knowledge of insiders is relatively important, such as R&D-intensive firms, may derive greater value from having higher fraction of insiders on the board. Our findings are consistent with our hypotheses. For firms that have greater advising requirements, such as those that are large, diversified across industries, and rely more on debt financing, we find that Tobin's Q increases in board size. Furthermore, in firms for which the firm-specific knowledge of insiders is relatively important, such as R&D-intensive firms, Tobin's Q increases with the fraction of insiders on the board. Firms with high advising requirements have larger boards. Also, firms with high R&D have larger fraction of insiders on the board. These results challenge the notion that exchange listing requirements, mandates from institutional investors, and restrictions in the law, specifically those that limit board size and management representation on the board, necessarily enhance firm value.

MNE competence‐creating subsidiary mandates

Abstract: The determinants of R&D intensity differ between subsidiaries in a multinational enterprise (MNE). Previous literature suggests that whether a subsidiary achieves a competence-creating output mandate depends on the qualities of its location. R&D strategies in competence-creating subsidiaries are supply-driven while those in purely competence-exploiting subsidiaries are demand-driven. Using data on U.K. subsidiaries of non-U.K. MNEs, we find that the level of subsidiary R&D depends on MNE group-level and subsidiary-level characteristics as well as locational factors. The R&D of mandated subsidiaries rises with acquisition, but for non-mandated subsidiaries R&D falls upon acquisition. MNEs that grow through acquisition have more inter-subsidiary R&D diversity. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Corporate Governance and Firm Valuation

Abstract: Gompers et al. [Gompers, P., Ishii, J., Metrick, A., 2003. Corporate governance and equity prices. Quarterly Journal of Economics 118, 107-155] created G-Index, a summary measure of corporate governance based on 24 firm-specific provisions, and showed that more democratic firms are more valuable. Bebchuk et al. [Bebchuk, L., Cohen, A., Ferrell, A., 2005. What matters in corporate governance? Working Paper, Harvard Law School] created an entrenchment index based on six provisions underlying G-Index, and found it to fully drive the Gompers et al. (2003) valuation results. Both G-Index and the entrenchment index are based on IRRC data that is comprised of anti-takeover measures, focusing on external governance [Cremers, K.J.M., Nair, V.B., 2005. Governance mechanisms and equity prices. Journal of Finance 60, 2859-2894]. We create Gov-Score, a summary governance measure based on 51 firm-specific provisions representing both internal and external governance, and we show that a parsimonious index based on seven provisions underlying Gov-Score fully drives the relation between Gov-Score and firm value. Our results support the Bebchuk et al. (2005) findings that only a small subset of provisions marketed by corporate governance data providers are related to firm valuation, and the Cremers and Nair (2005) evidence that both internal and external governance are linked to firm value. The 51 governance provisions we consider include five that are relevant to accounting and public policy: stock option expensing, and four that are audit-related. We find none of these five measures to be related to firm valuation. We document that only one of the seven governance provisions important for firm valuation was mandated by either the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 or the three major US stock exchanges. We provide researchers with an alternative measure of governance to G-Index with three distinct advantages: (1) broader in scope of governance, (2) covers more firms, and (3) more dynamic, reflecting recent changes in the corporate governance environment.

Religiosity in the Abandoned Apple Newton Brand Community

Abstract: This research explores the grassroots brand community centered on the Apple Newton, a product that was abandoned by the marketer. Supernatural, religious, and magical motifs are common in the narratives of the Newton community, including the miraculous performance and survival of the brand, as well as the return of the brand creator. These motifs invest the brand with powerful meanings and perpetuate the brand and the community, its values, and its beliefs. These motifs also reflect and facilitate the many transformative and emancipatory aspects of consuming this brand. Our findings reveal important properties of brand communities and, at a deeper level, speak to the communal nature of religion and the enduring human need for religious affiliation.

Behavioral Inhibition: Linking Biology and Behavior within a Developmental Framework

Abstract: Behavioral inhibition refers to a temperament or style of reacting that some infants and young children exhibit when confronted with novel situations or unfamiliar adults or peers. Research on behavioral inhibition has examined the link between this set of behaviors to the neural systems involved in the experience and expression of fear. There are strong parallels between the physiology of behaviorally inhibited children and the activation of physiological systems associated with conditioned and unconditioned fear. Research has examined which caregiving behaviors support the frequency of behavioral inhibition across development, and work on the interface of cognitive processes and behavioral inhibition reveal both how certain cognitive processes moderate behavioral inhibition and how this temperament affects the development of cognition. This research has taken place within a context of the possibility that stable behavioral inhibition may be a risk factor for psychopathology, particularly anxiety disorde...

Audit Committee Quality and Internal Control: An Empirical Analysis

Abstract: I examine the association between audit committee quality and the quality of corporate internal control. While information on the quality of internal control is not generally available, companies changing auditors are required to disclose any internal control problems that were pointed out by their predecessor auditors. The empirical results are based on a comparison of companies disclosing such internal control problems with a control sample of companies changing auditors but not disclosing internal control problems. Audit committee quality is measured in three dimensions: its size, its independence, and its expertise. The internal control problems are observed at two levels of increasing seriousness: reportable conditions and material weaknesses. The sample time period precedes the effective dates of recent policy changes regarding audit committees. The results indicate that independent audit committees and audit committees with financial expertise are significantly less likely to be associated with the...

Multiple Comparison Procedures

Abstract: Multiple comparison procedures (MCPs) are frequently adopted by applied researchers to locate specific differences between treatment groups. That is, omnibus test statistics, such as the analysis of variance F test, can only signify that effects are present, not which specific groups differ from one another (when there are more than two groups). In our paper, we discuss MCPs that can be used to investigate simple pairwise differences between treatment group means, as well as MCPs that can be used to examine complex comparisons (i.e., nonpairwise comparisons) between treatment group means. In particular, we discuss simultaneous as well as stepwise MCPs, emphasizing procedures that can be utilized when the derivational assumptions of the classical procedures of normality and variance homogeneity do not hold. Keywords: pairwise and complex comparisons; simultaneous and stepwise procedures; Type I error rates; robust procedures

Polyomavirus-Associated Nephropathy in Renal Transplantation: Interdisciplinary Analyses and Recommendations

Abstract: Polyomavirus-associated nephropathy (PVAN) is an emerging cause of kidney transplant failure affecting 1-10% of patients. As uncertainty exists regarding risk factors, diagnosis, and intervention, an independent panel of experts reviewed the currently available evidence and prepared this report. Most cases of PVAN are elicited by BK virus (BKV) in the context of intense immunosuppression. No specific immunosuppressive drug is exclusively associated with PVAN, but most cases reported to date arise while the patient is on triple immunosuppressive combinations, often comprising tacrolimus and/or mycophenolate mofetil plus corticosteroids. Immunologic control of polyomavirus replication can be achieved by reducing, switching, and/or discontinuing components of the immunosuppressive regimen, but the individual's risk of rejection should be considered. The success rate of this intervention is increased with earlier diagnosis. Therefore, it is recommended that all renal transplant recipients should be screened for BKV replication in the urine: 1) every three months during the first two years posttransplant; 2) when allograft dysfunction is noted; and 3) when allograft biopsy is performed. A positive screening result should be confirmed in <4 weeks and assessed by quantitative assays (e.g. BKV DNA or RNA load in plasma or urine). Definitive diagnosis of PVAN requires allograft biopsy. If PVAN and concurrent acute rejection is diagnosed, antirejection treatment should be considered, coupled with subsequently reducing immunosuppression. The antiviral cidofovir is not approved for PVAN, but investigational use at low doses (0.25-0.33 mg/kg intravenously biweekly) without probenicid should be considered for refractory cases. Retransplantation after renal allograft loss to PVAN remains a treatment option for patients clearing polyomavirus replication.

Revisiting the miles and snow strategic framework : uncovering interrelationships between strategic types, capabilities, environmental uncertainty, and firm performance

Abstract: The Miles and Snow strategic type framework is re-examined with respect to interrelationships with several theoretically relevant batteries of variables, including SBU strategic capabilities, environmental uncertainty, and performance. A newly developed constrained, multi-objective, classification methodology is modified to empirically derive an alternative quantitative typology using survey data obtained from 709 firms in three countries (China, Japan, United States). We compare the Miles and Snow typology to the classification empirically derived utilizing this combinatorial optimization clustering procedure. With respect to both variable battery associations and objective statistical criteria, we show that the empirically derived solution clearly dominates the traditional P-A-D-R typology of Miles and Snow. Implications and directions for future research are provided. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Reverse Shoulder Prosthesis for glenohumeral arthritis associated with severe rotator cuff deficiency. A minimum two-year follow-up study of sixty patients.

Abstract: Patients who have pain and dysfunction from glenohumeral arthritis associated with severe rotator cuff deficiency have few treatment options The goal of this study was to retrospectively evaluate the short-term results of arthroplasty with use of the Reverse Shoulder Prosthesis in the management of this problem We report the results for sixty patients (sixty shoulders) with a rotator cuff deficiency and glenohumeral arthritis who were followed for a minimum of two years Thirty-five patients had no previous shoulder surgery, whereas twenty-three had had either an open or arthroscopic rotator cuff repair, one had had a subacromial decompression, and one had had a biceps tendon repair All patients were assessed preoperatively and postoperatively with the American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons scoring system for pain and function and with visual analog scales for pain and function They were also asked to rate their satisfaction with the outcome The shoulder range of motion was measured preoperatively and postoperatively The average age of the patients was seventy-one years The average duration of follow-up was thirty-three months All measures improved significantly (p < 00001) The mean total score on the American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons system improved from 343 to 682; the mean function score, from 161 to 294; and the mean pain score, from 182 to 387 The score for function on the visual analog scale improved from 27 to 60, and the score for pain on the visual analog scale improved from 63 to 22 Forward flexion increased from 550° to 1051°, and abduction increased from 414° to 1018° Forty-one of the sixty patients rated the outcome as good or excellent; sixteen were satisfied, and three were dissatisfied There were a total of thirteen complications in ten patients (17%) Seven patients (12%) had eight failures, requiring revision surgery to another Reverse Shoulder Prosthesis in five patients (one shoulder had two revisions) and revision to a hemiarthroplasty in two patients because of deep infection The data from this study suggest that arthroplasty with the Reverse Shoulder Prosthesis may be a viable treatment for patients with glenohumeral arthritis and a massive rotator cuff tear However, future studies will be necessary to determine the longevity of the implant and whether it will provide continued improvement in function Therapeutic Level IV See Instructions to Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence

Reference Price Research: Review and Propositions

Abstract: A substantial body of research evidence has now accumulated in the reference price literature. One stream of research has identified the antecedents of reference price and has assessed their effects through experimentation. Others have calibrated a variety of reference price models on panel data and reported the effects on brand choice and other purchase decisions. In this article, the authors review the published literature on reference price in both the behavioral and modeling streams. They offer an integrative framework to review prior research on (1) the formation of reference price, (2) retrieval and use of reference price, and (3) influences of reference price on various purchase decisions and evaluations. In doing so, the authors examine the influences of consumers' prior purchase history and contextual moderators, such as specific purchase occasions, promotional environment of the store, and product category characteristics. They summarize the key findings, identify the unresolved issues,...

Test Anxiety and Academic Performance in Undergraduate and Graduate Students.

Abstract: This study investigated the relationship between test anxiety and academic performance in 4,000 undergraduate and 1,414 graduate students and found a significant but small inverse relationship between test anxiety and grade point average (GPA) in both groups. Low-test-anxious undergraduates averaged a B+, whereas high-test-anxious students averaged a B. Low-test-anxious female graduate students had significantly higher GPAs than high-test-anxious female graduate students, but there were no significant GPA differences between low- and high-test-anxious male graduate students. Female undergraduates had significantly higher test anxiety and higher GPAs than male undergraduates, and female graduate students had significantly higher test anxiety and higher GPAs than male graduate students.

Hybridity: The Cultural Logic Of Globalization

Abstract: Chapter 1: Cultural Hybridity and International Communication Chapter 2: Scenarios of Global Culture Chapter 3: The Trails and Tales of Hybridity Chapter 4: Corporate Transculturalism Chapter 5, The Political Economy of Hybrid Media Texts Chapter 6, Identity on the Line: Growing up Hybrid Chapter 7: Hybridity Without Guarantees: Towards Critical Transculturalism

False Discovery Rate–Adjusted Multiple Confidence Intervals for Selected Parameters

Abstract: Often in applied research, confidence intervals (CIs) are constructed or reported only for parameters selected after viewing the data. We show that such selected intervals fail to provide the assumed coverage probability. By generalizing the false discovery rate (FDR) approach from multiple testing to selected multiple CIs, we suggest the false coverage-statement rate (FCR) as a measure of interval coverage following selection. A general procedure is then introduced, offering FCR control at level q under any selection rule. The procedure constructs a marginal CI for each selected parameter, but instead of the confidence level 1 − q being used marginally, q is divided by the number of parameters considered and multiplied by the number selected. If we further use the FDR controlling testing procedure of Benjamini and Hochberg for selecting the parameters, the newly suggested procedure offers CIs that are dual to the testing procedure and are shown to be optimal in the independent case. Under the positive re...

Is there a geometric module for spatial orientation? squaring theory and evidence

Abstract: There is evidence, beginning with Cheng (1986), that mobile animals may use the geometry of surrounding areas to reorient following disorientation. Gallistel (1990) proposed that geometry is used to compute the major or minor axes of space and suggested that such information might form an encapsulated cognitive module. Research reviewed here, conducted on a wide variety of species since the initial discovery of the use of geometry and the formulation of the modularity claim, has supported some aspects of the approach, while casting doubt on others. Three possible processing models are presented that vary in the way in which (and the extent to which) they instantiate the modularity claim. The extant data do not permit us to discriminate among them. We propose a modified concept of modularity for which an empirical program of research is more tractable.

Modeling disorder in polymer aggregates: the optical spectroscopy of regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene) thin films.

Abstract: Absorption and emission in polymer aggregates is studied theoretically, taking into account excitonic (intermolecular) coupling, exciton-phonon (EP) coupling, and disorder, all treated on equal footing within a generalized Holstein Hamiltonian with numerically generated eigenmodes and energies. The disorder is modeled as a Gaussian distribution of molecular transition frequency offsets of width sigma and spatial correlation length l(0). Both herringbone (HB) and lamellar aggregate morphologies are considered. The emission spectral line shape is shown to undergo marked changes in response to increasing disorder, with the intensity of the ac-polarized 0-0 emission peak generally increasing relative to the replica intensities (0-1,0-2,[ellipsis (horizontal)]) as sigma increases and/or as l(0) decreases. This is contrary to the behavior of the b-polarized component of the 0-0 intensity, which, in HB aggregates, decreases with increasing disorder. Comparisons are made to analogous trends in oligomer aggregates. Analytical results are obtained in the strong EP coupling regime appropriate for conjugated polymers while treating the disorder perturbatively. A method for uniquely determining sigma and l(0) from the emission and absorption spectra is presented. Applications are made to absorption and low-temperature emission in thin films of regioregular poly(3-hexylthiophene), with excellent agreement between theory and experiment obtained for a spatial correlation length of only 3-4 molecules.

Exploiting heterogeneous sequence properties improves prediction of protein disorder.

Abstract: During the past few years we have investigated methods to improve predictors of intrinsically disordered regions longer than 30 consecutive residues. Experimental evidence, however, showed that these predictors were less successful on short disordered regions, as observed two years ago during the fifth Critical Assessment of Techniques for Protein Structure Prediction (CASP5). To address this shortcoming, we developed a two-level model called VSL1 (CASP6 id: 193-1). At the first level, VSL1 consists of two specialized predictors, one of which was optimized for long disordered regions (>30 residues) and the other for short disordered regions (< or =30 residues). At the second level, a meta-predictor was built to assign weights for combining the two first-level predictors. As the results of the CASP6 experiment showed, this new predictor has achieved the highest accuracy yet and significantly improved performance on short disordered regions, while maintaining high performance on long disordered regions.

Emotions and Multilingualism

Abstract: List of tables Preface 1. Languages and emotions: what can a multilingual perspective contribute? 2. Emotions in the study of multilingualism: framing the questions 3. Vocal level: is the lady angry? 4. Semantic and conceptual levels: the bilingual mental lexicon 5. Discursive level: I feel zhalko tebia bednogo 6. Neurophysiological level: his coeur is where his feelings dwell 7. Social cognition: I no longer wanted to speak German 8. Emotions and multilingualism: an integrated perspective Appendices References Author index Subject index.

Free Fatty Acids Produce Insulin Resistance and Activate the Proinflammatory Nuclear Factor-κB Pathway in Rat Liver

Abstract: To study mechanisms by which free fatty acids (FFAs) cause hepatic insulin resistance, we have used euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamping with and without infusion of lipid/heparin (to raise or to lower plasma FFAs) in alert male rats. FFA-induced hepatic insulin resistance was associated with increased hepatic diacylglycerol content (+210%), increased activities of two serine/threonine kinases (protein kinase C-δ and inhibitor of κB [IκB] kinase-β), increased activation of the proinflammatory nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway (IκB kinase-β, +640%; IκB-α, −54%; and NF-κB, +73%), and increased expression of inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α, +1,700% and interleukin-1β, +440%) and plasma levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (+220%). We conclude that FFAs caused hepatic insulin resistance, which can produce overproduction of glucose and hyperglycemia, and initiated inflammatory processes in the liver that could potentially result in the development of steatohepatitis.

Empirical validation and psychometric evaluation of the Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale in patients with social anxiety disorder.

Abstract: The Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (BFNE; M. R. Leary, 1983a) is often used to assess fear of negative evaluation, the core feature of social anxiety disorder. However, few studies have examined its psychometric properties in large samples of socially anxious patients. Although the BFNE yields a single total score, confirmatory factor analysis indicated a 2-factor solution to be more appropriate, with the 1st factor consisting of all straightforwardly worded items (BFNE-S) and the 2nd of all reverse-scored items (BFNE-R). Support was obtained for the convergent and discriminant validity of the BFNE and BFNE-S, but not the BFNE-R. These results suggest that standard scoring of the BFNE may not be optimal for patients with social anxiety disorder.

Optimizing long intrinsic disorder predictors with protein evolutionary information.

Abstract: Protein existing as an ensemble of structures, called intrinsically disordered, has been shown to be responsible for a wide variety of biological functions and to be common in nature. Here we focus on improving sequence-based predictions of long (>30 amino acid residues) regions lacking specific 3-D structure by means of four new neural-network-based Predictors Of Natural Disordered Regions (PONDRs): VL3, VL3H, VL3P, and VL3E. PONDR VL3 used several features from a previously introduced PONDR VL2, but benefitted from optimized predictor models and a slightly larger (152 vs. 145) set of disordered proteins that were cleaned of mislabeling errors found in the smaller set. PONDR VL3H utilized homologues of the disordered proteins in the training stage, while PONDR VL3P used attributes derived from sequence profiles obtained by PSI-BLAST searches. The measure of accuracy was the average between accuracies on disordered and ordered protein regions. By this measure, the 30-fold cross-validation accuracies of VL3, VL3H, and VL3P were, respectively, 83.6 +/- 1.4%, 85.3 +/- 1.4%, and 85.2 +/- 1.5%. By combining VL3H and VL3P, the resulting PONDR VL3E achieved an accuracy of 86.7 +/- 1.4%. This is a significant improvement over our previous PONDRs VLXT (71.6 +/- 1.3%) and VL2 (80.9 +/- 1.4%). The new disorder predictors with the corresponding datasets are freely accessible through the web server at http://www.ist.temple.edu/disprot.

Emotion Dysregulation in Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A Comparison with Social Anxiety Disorder

Abstract: From an emotion regulation framework, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) can be conceptualized as a syndrome involving heightened intensity of subjective emotional experience, poor understanding of emotion, negative reactivity to emotional experience, and the use of maladaptive emotion management strategies (including over-reliance on cognitive control strategies such as worry). The current study sought to replicate previous findings of emotion dysregulation among individuals with GAD and delineate which aspects of emotion dysregulation are specific to GAD or common to GAD and another mental disorder (social anxiety disorder). Individuals with GAD reported greater emotion intensity and fear of the experience of depression than persons with social anxiety disorder and nonanxious control participants. Individuals with social anxiety disorder indicated being less expressive of positive emotions, paying less attention to their emotions, and having more difficulty describing their emotions than either persons with GAD or controls. Measures of emotion differentiated GAD, social anxiety disorder, and normal control groups with good accuracy in a discriminant function analysis. Findings are discussed in light of theoretical and treatment implications for both disorders.

Integrating the supply chain with rfid: a technical and business analysis

Abstract: This paper presents an in-depth analysis of the technical and business implications of adopting Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) in organizational settings The year 2004 marked a significant shift toward adopting RFID because of mandates by large retailers and government organizations The use of RFID technology is expected to increase rapidly in the next few years At present, however, initial barriers against widespread adoption include standards, interoperability, costs, forward compatibility, and lack of familiarity This paper describes basic components of an RFID system including tags, readers, and antennas and how they work together using an integrated supply chain model Our analysis suggests that business needs to overcome human resource scarcity, security, legal and financial challenges and make informed decision regarding standards and process reengineering The technology is not fully mature and suffers from issues of attenuation and interference A laboratory experiment conducted by the authors shows that the middleware is not yet at a “plug-and-play” stage, which means that initial adopters need to spend considerable effort to integrate RFID into their existing business processes Appendices contain a glossary of common RFID terms, a list of RFID vendors and detailed findings of the laboratory experiment

Explaining the Global Digital Divide: Economic, Political and Sociological Drivers of Cross-National Internet Use

Abstract: We argue that the global digital divide, as measured by cross-national differences in Internet use, is the result of the economic, regulatory and sociopolitical characteristics of countries and their evolution over time. We predict Internet use to increase with worldsystem status, privatization and competition in the telecommunications sector, democracy and cosmopolitanism. Using data on 118 countries from 1997 through 2001, we find relatively robust support for each of our hypotheses. We conclude by exploring the implications of this new, powerful communication medium for the global political economy and for the spread of democracy around the world. The Internet has developed unevenly throughout the world, creating what has become known as the “global digital divide” (Castells 2001; Kirkman et al. 2002; Mosaic Group 1998; Norris 2001; Rogers 2001). The number of Internet users is one of the most widely used indicators of development of this emerging medium of communication. Less than 10 percent of the world’s population uses the Internet, and the gap between developed and developing countries has continued to widen since the early 1990s (see Figure 1). Differences by country are remarkable. Statistics compiled by the International Telecommunication Union as of the end of 2002 indicate that Internet use as a proportion of the population ranges from less than one percent in many underdeveloped African, Central American, and South Asian countries to between 50 and 60 percent in Iceland, the United States, Scandinavia, Singapore or South Korea (ITU 2003).1 The growth of the Internet has captured the imagination of users, policymakers, entrepreneurs, corporate managers, military strategists, social commentators, scholars, and journalists. Some early optimistic analyses envisioned the Internet as a “decentralizing, globalizing, harmonizing, and empowering” medium (Negroponte 1995:229), as a new communication technology that would bring about a “smaller, more open world.” (Tapscott and Caston 1993:313) The most enthusiastic visionaries have argued that the Internet means the “triumph over time and space,” the rise of the “netizen,” and the crowning of the “customer as sovereign” (Gilder 2000). According to the cyber-optimists, the Internet can create a public sphere in Habermas’s (1989) sense, one that is not regulated by the state or by commercial interests but rather owned and controlled by the participants themselves (Schneider 1996). While some of the cyber-optimists recognized the looming issue of inequality in access to the Internet (e.g. Tapscott and Caston 1993:312), it was not until the late 1990s that international organizations, governments, think tanks, and universities started to warn about the existence of a yawning digital divide, both within and across countries (e.g., U.S.

Peer influence in children and adolescents: crossing the bridge from developmental to intervention science.

Abstract: Considerable evidence supports the hypothesis that peer relationships influence the growth of problem behavior in youth. Developmental research consistently documents the high levels of covariation between peer and youth deviance, even controlling for selection effects. Ironically, the most common public interventions for deviant youth involve segregation from mainstream peers and aggregation into settings with other deviant youth. Developmental research on peer influence suggests that desired positive effects of group interventions in education, mental health, juvenile justice, and community programming may be offset by deviant peer influences in these settings. Given the public health policy issues raised by these findings, there is a need to better understand the conditions under which these peer contagion effects are most pronounced with respect to intervention foci and context, the child's developmental level, and specific strategies for managing youth behavior in groups.