Showing papers by "University of California published in 1978"

Stress-Related Transactions between Person and Environment

Abstract: Because stress implies a particular kind of commerce between a person (or animal) and environment, it provides an ideal vehicle for addressing the subject matter of this book on internal and external determinants of behavior. We believe this issue is expressed especially well by differentiating between two metatheoretical concepts, transaction and interaction. We have been drawn inexorably toward an emphasis on transaction by the very nature of stress phenomena and the evolving theoretical perspective within which we have worked.

Sequential Program Prefetching in Memory Hierarchies

Abstract: Memory transfers due to a cache miss are costly. Prefetching all memory references in very fast computers can increase the effective CPU speed by 10 to 25 percent.

Multilocus Systems in Evolution

Abstract: Population studies of genetic variation and microevolution are classically discussed in terms of changes in gene frequencies and the maintenance of polymorphic loci that can be identified by Mendelian analyses. In recent years, however, a great deal of attention has been given to the evolutionary dynamics and polymorphisms of interacting and linked loci (e.g., Clegg et al., 1972; Lewontin, 1974; Karlin, 1976). The special properties of multilocus systems, namely, gene interaction and linkage, were first briefly considered in theory by Fisher (1930) and Wright (1932). Fisher discussed in particular the role of modifiers in the evolution of dominance and clearly recognized the importance of linkage in the evolution of interacting polymorphisms. Wright proposed an intermediate optimum model in which natural selection favors intermediate phenotypes over the extremes for a continuous metric trait and emphasized the role of linkage in the makeup of gametic arrays.

Clinical pharmacokinetics of lignocaine.

Abstract: Lignocaine is widely used as a local anaesthetic and antiarrhythmic drug. It is commonly administered to patients with acute myocardial infarction as prophylaxis for ventricular fibrillation, although its efficacy in preventing primary ventricular fibrillation is still debated. Toxicity, sometimes with serious clinical consequence, is not uncommom and is usually related to overdosage. Blood lignocaine concentrations correlate roughly with antiarrhythmic and toxic effects and might be useful as an end point for monitoring prophylactic therapy. Administration of lignocaine as a local anaesthetic may result in blood lignocaine concentration in the antiarrhythmic or even toxic ranges. Expected peak levels for various routes of local anaesthesia are tabulated so that 'safe' total doses can be calculated. Intramuscular injection of high doses results in sustained therapeutic levels but is often associated with early minor toxicity. Lignocaine is eliminated primarily by hepatic metabolism, which appears to be limited by liver perfusion. Active metabolites may contribute to therapeutic and/or toxic effects. Disease states such as cardiac failure or drugs that alter hepatic blood flow may significantly affect lignocaine clearance. Pharmacokinetic studies in man show wide variability in drug disposition between patients, even when cardiac and hepatic status is considered, making specific dosing recommendations a problem. With intravenous injection, multicompartment kinetics is observed, with an initial rapid decline phase and initial decline in antiarrhythmic activity due to redistribution. With constant infusion, steady state concentrations of lignocaine are seen after 3 to 4 hours in normal subjects and after 8 to 10 hours in patients with myocardial infarction without circulatory insufficiency. In patients with cardiac failure, blood lignocaine concentration may continue to rise for 24 to 48 hours. In the presence of cardiac failure, decreased volumes of distribution and clearance require reduction in loading and maintenance doses. Lignocaine clearance is reduced in patients with liver disease and appears to be a sensitive index of liver dysfunction. A dosing algorithm for treatment of patients with myocardial infarction is presented.

ISEE plasma observations near the subsolar magnetopause

Abstract: The early ISEE orbits provided the opportunity to study the magnetopause and its environs only a few Earth radii above the subsolar point Measurements of complete two-dimensional ion and electron distributions every 3 or 12 s, and of three-dimensional distributions every 12 or 48 s by the LASL/MPI instrumentation on both spacecraft allow a detailed study of the plasma properties with unprecedented temporal resolution This paper presents observations obtained during four successive inbound orbits in November 1977, containing a total of 9 magnetopause crossings, which occurred under widely differing orientations of the external magnetic field The main findings are: (1) The magnetosheath flow near the magnetopause is characterized by large fluctuations, which often appear to be temporal in nature (2) Between ∼01 and ∼03R E outside the magnetopause, the plasma density and pressure often start to gradually decrease as the magnetopause is approached, in conjunction with an increase in magnetic field strength These observations are in accordance with the formation of a depletion layer due to the compression of magnetic flux tubes (3) In cases where the magnetopause can be well resolved, it exhibits fluctuations in density, and especially pressure and bulk velocity around average magnetosheath values The pressure fluctuations are anticorrelated with simultaneous magnetic field pressure changes (4) In one case the magnetopause is characterized by substantially displaced electron and proton boundaries and a proton flow direction change from upwards along the magnetopause to a direction tranverse to the geomagnetic field These features are in agreement with a model of the magnetopause described by Parker (5) The character of the magnetopause sometimes varies strongly between ISEE-1 and -2 crossings which occur ∼ 1 min apart At times this is clearly the result of highly non-uniform motions There are also cases where there is very good agreement between the structures observed by the two satellites (6) In three of the nine crossings no boundary layer was present adjacent to the magnetopause More remarkably, two of the three occurred while the external magnetic field had a substantial southward component, in clear contradiction to expectations from current reconnection models (7) The only thick (low-latitude) boundary layer (LLBL) observed was characterized by sharp changes at its inner and outer edges This profile is difficult to reconcile with local plasma entry by either direct influx or diffusion (8) During the crossings which showed no boundary layer adjacent to the magnetopause, magnetosheath-like plasma was encountered sometime later Possible explanations include the sudden formation of a boundary layer at this location right at the time of the encounter, and a crossing of an ‘inclusion’ of magnetosheath plasma within the magnetosphere (9) The flow in the LLBI is highly variable observed directions include flow towards and away from the subsolar point, along the geomagnetic field and across it, tangential and normal to the magnetopause Some of these features clearly are nonstationary The scale size over which the flow directions change exceeds the separation distance (several hundred km) of the two spacecraft

Synchronized retroperfusion of coronary veins for circulatory support of jeopardized ischemic myocardium

Abstract: A retroperfusion system was developed that augments retrograde delivery of arterial blood into an acutely ischemic myocardial region during diastole and facilitates coronary venous drainage in systole. An electrocardiogram-synchronized, gas-actuated bladder pump propels retroperfusate through an autoinflatable balloon catheter whose tip is placed within the regional coronary vein that drains the ischemic myocardium. Experiments were performed in 26 closed chest dogs with 4 hour intracoronary balloon occlusion of the proximal left anterior descending coronary artery. An untreated control series consisted of 13 dogs; the remaining 13 dogs were treated with retroperfusion, which was initiated after the first hour of acute coronary occlusion. Synchronized retroperfusion resulted in a significant 37 ± 10 percent (mean ± standard error of the mean) decrease in left ventricular end-diastolic pressure from 11 ± 2 to 5 ± 21 mm Hg, a 20 ± 4 percent decrease in peak systolic pressure (140 ± 7 to 110 ± 6 mm Hg) and a 25 ± 6 percent reduction in systemic vascular resistance (3,880 ± 340 to 2,380 ± 300 dynes sec cm −5 ). Ischemic region intracoronary S-T segment elevation decreased 40 ± 15 percent, and potassium loss was reduced 92 ± 22 percent. Partial pressure of oxygen measured distal to the coronary occlusion decreased 36 ± 2 percent, suggesting oxygen delivery to and extraction by the jeopardized ischemic myocardium. Ventriculography in four dogs revealed an increase in left ventricular ejection fraction and reversal of ischemic segment dyskinesia by synchronized retroperfusion. A nitro-blue tetrazollum study of 10 excised hearts indicated that 3 hours of synchronized retroperfusion significantly reduced the size of Ischemic Injury to 3.3 ± 2 percent of the left ventricle (versus 16.2 ± 5 percent in the untreated control group). In addition, retroperfusion appeared to correct ischemic arrhythmias. The experimental data suggest that this treatment is capable of improving cardiac function and salvaging jeopardized myocardium. Clinical application is envisioned as a prompt temporary emergency support for acute and profound ischemic dysfunction not readily treatable by other interventions.

Butchering and Stone Tool Function

Abstract: Experiments were performed to determine the effectiveness of obsidian tools with different forms of edge treatment for animal processing. For most butchering tasks, primary flakes with unmodified working edges were more effective than bifacially pressure-flaked tools. The data presented indicate considerable variability among animal species in the demands placed on tools used for specific butchering tasks. It is suggested that consideration by prehistoric hunters of factors such as tool longevity and raw material availability could have resulted in the use of butchering tools with less than optimal cutting characteristics.

Histamine—forming bacteria isolated from spoiled skipjack tuna and jack mackerel

Abstract: Bacterial isolates from spoiled skipjack tuna and jack mackerel were examined for their ability to produce histamine in tuna infusion broth. Thirty-one percent of the 470 isolates produced from 0.10 mg/ml to 4.0 mg/ml of histamine in broth. Forty-four of these isolates were tentatively identified as: Proteus morganii (21); Hafnia alvei (13); Proteus species (3); Klebsiella species (1); and unknown (6). Histamine (0.05M) did not inhibit histidine decarboxylase activity, but repressed histidine decarboxylase formation with one strain of Proteus morganii in a synthetic medium.

Biological control in temporary agroecosystems

Abstract: The attributes of both natural enemies and pest species in temporary agroecosystems are discussed. Analysis of natural biological control of noctuid pests in California cotton provides empirical support for the view that certain natural enemies are well adapted to habitats of low durational stability and that such enemies are fully capable of effecting pest suppression in these habitats.

A Case Study of Early Language Awareness

Abstract: Along with the development of language itself, there emerges a capacity to attend to language and speech as objects of reflection. The development of language awareness is, of course, part of the general development of consciousness and self-consciouness. One can distinguish levels of metalinguistic capacity, from the dimly conscious or preconscious speech monitoring which underlies self-correction, to the concentrated, analytic work of the linguist. Much of this route is traversed in the preschool years. The following aspects of language awareness appear, between the ages of two and six: (1) self-corrections and re-phrasings in the course of ongoing speech; (2) comments on the speech of others (pronunciation, dialect, language, meaning, appropriateness, style, volume, etc.); (3) explicit questions about speech and language; (4) comments on own speech and language; (5) response to direct questions about language.

Piagetian Theory and Neo-Piagetian Analysis as Psychological Guides in Education

Abstract: Chapters in this volume reflect the strong conviction that Piaget’s work has important implications for education. We share that conviction and wish to explore it further by emphasizing problems and suggesting solutions. The need for further exploration is shown in the other chapters by the way they display, and even acknowledge, a fundamental dilemma found in the vast literature on Piaget and education. The dilemma is that psychologists or educators, who presumably started from the same Piagetian theory, often arrive at very different conclusions regarding practice, and sometimes these conclusions seem less in keeping with Piaget than with other theoretical approaches. There is no question that some of these problems have resulted from incomplete or erroneous interpretations of Piagetian theory, as is often suggested in this volume by DeVries, Gallagher, or Reid. However, our own view is that even relatively sophisticated attempts to apply Piaget’s theory to education will continue to be plagued by ambiguities and contradictions until some basic theoretical problems have been solved.

Early hominid enamel hypoplasia.

Abstract: Enamel hypoplasia in the South African Plio-Pleistocene fossil hominid sample is examined. The Swartkrans hominids are shown to have a higher incidence of hypoplasia than the Sterkfontein hominids. Within the Swartkrans sample, individuals with hypoplasia of the first upper molar have lower-than-expected ages of death. Possible taphonomic explanations for these observations are discussed.

Protection against free radical lipid peroxidation reactions.

Abstract: Newer knowledge of oxidants and biological protector systems has catalyzed greater scientific interest in all of these important areas. Some of the most important oxidants and biological protector systems are shown in Table 1. Superoxide and superoxide dismutase (1) are topics in which interest and knowledge have rapidly expanded.

Cortical cells ; Bar and edge detectors, or spatial frequency filters

Abstract: Until the pioneering work of HUBEL and WIESEL (1, 2, 3), visual scientists could do little more than guess about the functions of cells in visual cortex and the manner in which complex patterns were analyzed. Their initial reports, however, established that cells in Area 17 of cat (and also monkey) were quite unresponsive to full-field illumination, requiring more specific patterns to elicit a response. Their receptive field (RF) maps of simple cells showed an elongated excitatory center and inhibitory flanks, or vice versa; or two adjacent excitatory and inhibitory areas. Initially HUBEL and WIESEL (2) reported that there was summation within the excitatory and inhibitory regions and an antagonism between them. As we shall see, such summation, if true, would have implications not at all foreseen at the time, and would lead one, in fact, to a quite different model of what such cells do from the one which they actually proposed.

Absorption and utilization of ammonium nitrogen by plants

Abstract: Plants that are supplied a portion of their N as NH 4 , as is likely in highly productive soils, differ in several ways from plants supplied NO 3 only. The difference of principal interest is the large increase (to 50%) in growth rate from controlled NH 4 supply, the potential of which is largely unknown since no procedures are available for evaluating the NH 4 . nutritional status of plants. Ammonium status, unlike that of the mineral elements and NO 3 , cannot be evaluated directly but must be estimated from its effects on plant physiological processes. One of these, the carboxylate/amide ratio of root tissues, gives a measure of the level of NH 4 being assimilated by the plant, while measurable levels of uncomplexed NH 4 in the root signify the onset of NH 4 toxicity. Maximum growth rates are associated with high rates of NH 4 assimilation and low levels of free NH 4 .

Microstructure of Atmospheric Clouds and Precipitation

Abstract: Before discussing the microphysical mechanisms of cloud particle formation, we shall give a brief description of the main microstructural features of clouds. Here we shall be concerned primarily with the sizes, number concentrations, and geometry of the particles comprising the visible cloud.

Vegetation change along the arizona-sonora boundary∗

Abstract: A segment of the international boundary dividing southeastern Arizona and northeastern Sonora provides an opportunity to examine the impact of culturally distinct land-use patterns on plant communities that were homogeneous prior to completion of a continuous fence line separating the two countries. Photographs taken in 1892, 1969, and 1976 illustrate the changing spatial contrasts in wild vegetation spanning the international boundary. Since the drought and overstocked range conditions of the early 1890s, there has been a general increase in herbaceous and woody vegetation. Presently, grass is taller and there is greater grass cover with less barren ground on the United States side. These conditions result from different grazing histories and different livestock management practices in the two countries.

Intratrigeminal and thalamic projections of nucleus caudalis in the squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus): a degeneration and autoradiographic study.

Abstract: In order to test the hypothesis that thalamic efferents of trigeminal nucleus caudalis (NC) are the cranial analogue of the spinothalamic system, lesion and autoradiographic studies were carried out in the squirrel monkey, and the terminal projection fields in thalamus were noted. Results showed that NC, including lateral reticular formation (LRF), projects to contralateral VPM, the VPM-VPL border and medial VPL, and a region dorsal to ventroposterior nucleus (VP) proper which contains cells larger than those in VPM yet which stain as darkly as VPL neurons; this latter zone of termination may be homologous with VPLo (Vim) in other species, which is that area receiving lemniscal and cerebellar afferents (Mehler, '71; Walsh and Ebner, '73; Boivie, '74). In addition, a small projection is noted in an area intercalated between dorsomedial MG, limitans nucleus and posterior VP which closely agrees with the medial division of Posterior nucleus (Po) described in rhesus and squirrel monkey (Burton and Jones, '76). No terminations were observed in the gustatory nucleus medial to VPM. Bilateral, terminal projection fields were observed in posterior mediodorsal nucleus (MD), and a paralaminar area (PL) which lies in the ventrolateral strip of MD and is particularly prominent in primates; other bilateral fields were noted in CL, particularly the more medial segment of the nucleus. A sparse projection was noted in contralateral CM. Ipsilateral, intratrigeminal connections between NC and main sensory nucleus (MSV) also were observed. We conclude that, in the squirrel monkey, NC efferents, probably including LRF, may be considered analagous to the spinothalamic system by virtue of terminations in older medial and newer ventroposterior thalamus. Terminations in posterior MD may be specific to Primates. Moreover, projections to an area just dorsal to VP proper in squirrel monkey may be included within the broader definition of a neo-spinothalamic area as reflected in spinothalamic tract projections to the ventrolateral complex in cat (Boivie, '71b; Jones and Burton, '74). The small NC projection to a part of Po is consistent with spinothalamic terminations to a “posterior” thalamic area in other primates (Mehler, '69), and with the suggestion that medial Po transmits pain information (Burton and Jones, '76).

Deformation Analysis of Axisymmetric Sheet Metal Forming Processes by the Rigid-Plastic Finite Element Method

Abstract: The paper describes the development of a finite-element model for analyzing the sheet-metal forming processes. Materials are assumed to be rigid-plastic with the view that the usefulness of an analysis method depends largely on solution accuracy and computation efficiency.

Life Cycle Squeeze and The Morale Curve

Abstract: Morale is high when people know the ropes in a stable career context and are at a stage in the family life cycle where their resources and rewards balance their aspirations. For most modern workers that balance is least evident early and late in life when morale sags expecially among solitary survivors or young couples with preschool children. Empirical data reported here on the deviant case of professionals in a solid financial position employed or unemployed show more balance between rewards and aspirations over the life cycle but a modest loss of morale when children leave home. Unemployed professionals under severe financial pressure however fit the pattern mass; they are relieved when children leave. A great range of behaviors and attitudes can be explained by the use of the idea of "life cycle squeeze" and by attention to interlocking cycles of family life work consumption social participation and morale. (authors modified)

SiO2-Al2O3 metastable phase equilibrium diagram without mullite

Abstract: A metastable binary phase diagram between SiO2 (cristobalite) andα-Al2O3 (corundum) in the absence of any mullite phase is presented. A eutectic is indicated at a temperature of ≈ 1260° C and a composition of ≈ 18 wt% (≈ 12 mol%) Al2O3. The liquidi of the proposed metastable system were positioned on the basis of the thermodynamic data calculated from the stable equilibrium diagram of Aksay and Pask [2]. Experimental evidence is also presented. A SiO2-Al2O3 melt containing 80 wt% Al2O3 cooled at a slow rate in sealed molybdenum crucibles shows crystalline Al2O3 plus a glass phase whose composition followed the calculated extension of the stable Al2O3 liquidus to lower temperatures. Compacts of cristobalite—corundum mixtures were fired at subsolidus temperatures to estimate the eutectic temperature experimentally. The proposed metastable phase diagram effectively explains the formation of non-crystalline phases in subsolidus reactions, and microstructure obtained on solidification of high alumina melts.

Factors influencing nitrate acquisition by plants; assimilation and fate of reduced nitrogen

Abstract: The uptake and assimilation of nitrate into reduced nitrogen were investigated in barley, annual range grasses and wheat. The absorption of nitrate showed saturation kinetics and was closely coupled to metabolism with ATP or other high energy intermediates apparently responsible for accumulation of this ion. The uptake system is inducible by nitrate and is suggestive of a permease transport mechanism. The nitrate uptake system strongly influenced nitrate reduction and accumulation by supplying the initial nitrate flux into the plant. The kinetic patterns for uptake and reduction by barley seedlings were identical over time and nitrate concentrations. Evidence is strong that the uptake system can function independently from the nitrate reduction system. On the other hand, studies showed that uptake was greater in plants which had an already induced NR system indicating that NR activity may also influence the rate of uptake. Two varieties of wheat, Anza and UC 44-111, showed marked differences in nitrate content of foliar tissue. A systematic study of the uptake, NR activity, assimilation, protein content and distribution was conducted with these two genotypes. The breakdown and retranslocation of protein from the foliage to the grain during seed filling time were critical physiological markers for grain protein content of these two varieties.

Further Studies on the Role of Calcium in Glucocorticoid-Induced Lymphocytolysis*

Abstract: In a previous study comparing the effects of triamcinolone acetonide (TA) and a divalent cation ionophore (A23187) on rat thymocytes, we proposed an important contributory role for Ca2+ in glucocorticoidinduced cytolysis. The plausibility of this hypothesis was tested further in thymic lymphocytes (thymocytes) and lymph node lymphocytes (LN-lymphocytes). Thymocytes incubated in a Ca2+-containing medium responded to TA or A23187 with a concentration-dependent decrease in the number of viable cells. TA-induced cytolysis was reduced in Ca-free medium and was equally supported by Ca2+ and Sr2+, but not by Ba2+. A23187-induced cytolysis was supported by Ca2+ > Sr2+, but not by Ba2+. Thymocytes were also lysed by increasing concentrations of Ca2+ even in the absence of TA and A23187. LN-Lymphocytes, however, were less sensitive to the cytotoxic effects of Ca*+ under the same conditions. In the presence of Ca2+, thymocytes were lysed to a greater extent than LN-lymphocytes by TA, whereas the sensitivities to A23...

Pharmacokinetic analysis of percutaneous absorption; evidence of parallel penetration pathways for methotrexate

Abstract: Compartmental models were developed to describe the penetration of a drug from a topically applied vehicle through the skin. Data for in vitro penetration of methotrexate through hairless mouse skin from vehicles varying in PH from 3.5 to 6.5 were computer- fitted to estimate model parameters. Comparison of lag time and the exponential coefficient suggested that parallel penetration pathways exist. The fraction of drug penetrating through the shunt pathway increased as vehicle pH and ionization increased. Penetration curves were quantitatively partitioned into bulk tissue and shunt contributions. At pH 6.5, flux through the shunt pathway predominated.

Studies on the Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Receptor/Ionophore Proteins in Mammalian Brain

Abstract: Receptor-ionophore proteins which mediate postsynaptic membrane responses to neurotransmitters can be studied in vitro by suitable radioactive ligand binding assays. Radioactive ligands are most appropriate when they act as potent and specific agonists or antagonists on the synapse under study. Drugs or toxins meeting these specifications are available for identification of numerous neurotransmitter receptors (Changeux et al., 1975; Cuatrecasas, 1974); in other cases binding of the radioactive neurotransmitter itself has been utilized (Snyder & Bennett, 1976). In very few cases have ligands been available for potential identification of elements other than the neurotransmitter recognition site (receptor) involved in mediating postsynaptic membrane responses (Young & Snyder, 1974; Bon & Changeux, 1975; Eldefrawi et al. 1977). Identification of binding sites in vitro as physiologically relevant postsynaptic receptor-ionophore proteins requires that numerous criteria be met, such as suitable quantity, binding affinity, tissue and subcellular location, and chemical specificity of the binding sites. In practice this last criterion demands quantitative estimates of dose-effect relationships for drugs active on the tissue under study and at least one such drug which is very specific for the receptor-ionophore as opposed to other potential binding proteins.

Glutamate as a CNS Neurotransmitter: Properties of Release, Inactivation and Biosynthesis

Abstract: At present glutamic acid is the molecule most likely to be the major excitatory transmitter in the mammalian CNS, It has many of the properties expected if it is to serve in such a role. The glutamic acid concentration in brain is higher than that of any other amino acid, and it seems to be present in sufficiently high levels to serve as a transmitter in a variety of different neurons. When glutamic acid is applied iontophoretically to the various neurons throughout the CNS it most commonly has a powerful-excitatory action (Davidson, 1976). In some cases this excitatory effect is specific: e.g., olfactory bulb neurons are relatively unresponsive to iontophoretically applied glutamate whereas hippocampal or cerebral cortex neurons are quite sensitive (Van Baumgarten et al., 1963). In contrast to the effect on CNS neurons, when glutamate is applied to the muscle surface at a neuromuscular junction, for example, it has no effect (Curtis and Watkins, 1965). The excitatory effect of glutamate is restricted to extracellular application in that intracellularly applied glutamate has no such effect (Takeuchi and Takeuchi, 1963). The depolarization which results from extracellular application of glutamate in many cases appears to be due to an increase in the permeability to Na ions (Curtis et al. 1972) which is not blocked by tetrodotoxin (McIlwain et al., 1969).

Regulation of the Stream of Consciousness: Toward a Theory of Ongoing Thought

Abstract: Consciousness—that familiar constellation of memories, sensations, plans, fantasies, fleeting images, and sometimes unrecognizable forms that constitutes our awareness from moment to moment—has received rough treatment at the hands of 20th-century American psychology. Neither the elaborate Titchnerian method of introspection nor the stirring, graceful prose of William James managed to extend the life of consciousness as a legitimate area for psychological investigation much past the turn of the century. As Roger Brown (1958) wrote, “In 1913 John Watson mercifully closed the bloodshot inner eye of American psychology. With great relief the profession trained its exteroceptors on the laboratory animal” (p. 93). Even the impact of Freudian thought and psychoanalysis, with its great interest in and respect for the inner life of the individual, failed to generate a renewed study of consciousness because it emphasized the overwhelming power of the unconscious and portrayed man’s life as determined by a hydrauliclike system of drives of which the individual was generally unaware. More recently, careful, creative, rigorously executed scientific work (Holt, 1964; Paivio, 1971; Segal, 1971; Sheehan, 1972; Singer, 1974a,b) has managed to open the door a bit toward a systematic study of consciousness, though psychology is still occasionally chastised for its “diverting preoccupation with a supposed or real inner life” (Skinner, 1975, p. 46).