Showing papers by "University of Chicago published in 1974"

Observational study of behavior: sampling methods.

Abstract: Seven major types of sampling for observational studies of social behavior have been found in the literature. These methods differ considerably in their suitability for providing unbiased data of various kinds. Below is a summary of the major recommended uses of each technique: In this paper, I have tried to point out the major strengths and weaknesses of each sampling method. Some methods are intrinsically biased with respect to many variables, others to fewer. In choosing a sampling method the main question is whether the procedure results in a biased sample of the variables under study. A method can produce a biased sample directly, as a result of intrinsic bias with respect to a study variable, or secondarily due to some degree of dependence (correlation) between the study variable and a directly-biased variable. In order to choose a sampling technique, the observer needs to consider carefully the characteristics of behavior and social interactions that are relevant to the study population and the research questions at hand. In most studies one will not have adequate empirical knowledge of the dependencies between relevant variables. Under the circumstances, the observer should avoid intrinsic biases to whatever extent possible, in particular those that direcly affect the variables under study. Finally, it will often be possible to use more than one sampling method in a study. Such samples can be taken successively or, under favorable conditions, even concurrently. For example, we have found it possible to take Instantaneous Samples of the identities and distances of nearest neighbors of a focal individual at five or ten minute intervals during Focal-Animal (behavior) Samples on that individual. Often during Focal-Animal Sampling one can also record All Occurrences of Some Behaviors, for the whole social group, for categories of conspicuous behavior, such as predation, intergroup contact, drinking, and so on. The extent to which concurrent multiple sampling is feasible will depend very much on the behavior categories and rate of occurrence, the observational conditions, etc. Where feasible, such multiple sampling can greatly aid in the efficient use of research time.

The Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL): A self-report symptom inventory

Abstract: This report describes the historical evolution, development, rationale and validation of the Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL), a self-report symptom inventory. The HSCL is comprised of 58 items which are representative of the symptom configurations commonly observed among outpatients. It is scored on five underlying symptom dimensions—sommatization, obsessive-compulsive, interpersonal sensitivity, anxiety and depression—which have been identified in repeated factor analyses. A series of studies have established the factorial invariance of the primary symptom dimensions, and substantial evidence is given in support of their construct validity. Normative data in terms of both discrete symptoms and primary symptom dimensions are presented on 2,500 subjects—1,800 psychiatric outpatients and 700 normals. Indices of pathology reflect both intensity of distress and prevalence of symptoms in the normative samples. Standard indices of scale reliability are presented, and a broad range of criterion-related validity studies, in particular an important series reflecting sensitivity to treatment with psychotherapeutic drugs, are reviewed and discussed.

A Theory of Social Interactions

Abstract: This essay incorporates a general treatment of social interactions into the modern theory of consumer demand. Section 1 introduces the topic and explores some of the existing perspectives on social interactions and their importance in the basic structure of wants. In Section 2, various characteristics of different persons are assumed to affect the utility functions of some persons, and the behavioral implications are systematically explored. Section 3 develops further implications and applications in the context of analyzing intra-family relations, charitable behavior, merit goods and multi-persons interactions, and envy and hatred. The variety and significance of these applications is persuasive testimony not only to the importance of social interactions, but also to the feasibility of incorporating them into a rigorous analysis.

Exploratory latent structure analysis using both identifiable and unidentifiable models

Abstract: SUMMARY This paper considers a wide class of latent structure models. These models can serve as possible explanations of the observed relationships among a set of m manifest polytomous variables. The class of models considered here includes both models in which the parameters are identifiable and also models in which the parameters are not. For each of the models considered here, a relatively simple method is presented for calculating the maximum likeli- hood estimate of the frequencies in the m-way contingency table expected under the model, and for determining whether the parameters in the estimated model are identifiable. In addition, methods are presented for testing whether the model fits the observed data, and for replacing unidentifiable models that fit by identifiable models that fit. Some illus- trative applications to data are also included. This paper deals with the relationships among m polytomous variables, i.e. with the analysis of an m-way contingency table. These m variables are manifest variables in that, for each observed individual in a sample, his class with respect to each of the m variables is observed. We also consider here polytomous variables that are latent in that an individ- ual's class with respect to these variables is not observed. The classes of a latent variable will be called latent classes. Consider first a 4-way contingency table which cross-classifies a sample of n individuals with respect to four manifest polytomous variables A, B, C and D. If there is, say, some latent dichotomous variable X, so that each of the n individuals is in one of the two latent classes with respect to this variable, and within the tth latent class the manifest variables (A, B, C, D) are mutually independent, then this two-class latent structure would serve as a simple explanation of the observed relationships among the variables in the 4-way con- tingency table for the n individuals. There is a direct generalization when the latent variable has T classes. We shall present some relatively simple methods for determining whether the observed relationships among the variables in the m-way contingency table can be explained by a T-class structure, or by various modifications and extensions of this latent structure. To illustrate the methods we analyze Table 1, a 24 contingency table presented earlier by Stouffer & Toby (1951, 1962, 1963), which cross-classifies 216 respondents with respect to whether they tend towards universalistic values ( + ) or particularistic values (-) when confronted by each of four different situations of role conflict. The letters A, B, C and D in

Regulation of Herpesvirus Macromolecular Synthesis I. Cascade Regulation of the Synthesis of Three Groups of Viral Proteins

Abstract: Based on evidence that 50% of herpes simplex 1 DNA is transcribed in HEp-2 cells in the absence of protein synthesis we examined the order and rates of synthesis of viral polypeptides in infected cells after reversal of cycloheximide- or puromycin-mediated inhibition of protein synthesis. These experiments showed that viral polypeptides formed three sequentially synthesized, coordinately regulated groups designated alpha, beta, and gamma. Specifically: (i) The alpha group, containing one minor structural and several nonstructural polypeptides, was synthesized at highest rates from 3 to 4 h postinfection in untreated cells and at diminishing rates thereafter. The beta group, also containing minor structural and nonstructural polypeptides, was synthesized at highest rates from 5 to 7 h and at decreasing rates thereafter. The gamma group containing major structural polypeptides was synthesized at increasing rates until at least 12 h postinfection. (ii) The synthesis of alpha polypeptides did not require prior infected cell protein synthesis. In contrast, the synthesis of beta polypeptides required both prior alpha polypeptide synthesis as well as new RNA synthesis, since the addition of actinomycin D immediately after removal of cycloheximide precluded beta polypeptide synthesis. The function supplied by the alpha polypeptides was stable since interruption of protein synthesis after alpha polypeptide synthesis began and before beta polypeptides were made did not prevent the immediate synthesis of beta polypeptides once the drug was withdrawn. The requirement of gamma polypeptide synthesis for prior synthesis of beta polypeptides seemed to be similar to that of beta polypeptides for prior synthesis of the alpha group. (iii) The rates of synthesis of alpha polypeptides were highest immediately after removal of cycloheximide and declined thereafter concomitant with the initiation of beta polypeptide synthesis; this decline in alpha polypeptide synthesis was less rapid in the presence of actinomycin D which prevented the appearance of beta and gamma polypeptides. The decrease in rates of synthesis of beta polypeptides normally occurring after 7 h postinfection was also less rapid in the presence of actinomycin D than in its absence, whereas ongoing synthesis of gamma polypeptides at this time was rapidly reduced by actinomycin D. (iv) Inhibitors of DNA synthesis (cytosine arabinoside or hydroxyurea) did not prevent the synthesis of alpha, beta, or gamma polypeptides, but did reduce the amounts of gamma polypeptides made.

THE ORGANIZATION OF PROTEINS IN THE HUMAN RED BLOOD CELL MEMBRANE A Review

Abstract: The elucidation of the molecular architecture of cell membranes is a central goal for cell biology, as structure lies at the heart of function. The erythrocyte plasma membrane has long provided a favored testing ground for this inquiry. Human red blood cells are readily available, relatively homogeneous, and relevant to medicine. Their plasma membranes can be easily isolated intact and essentially free of contamination from other cells, organelles, and cytoplasmic contents. This membrane is complex enough to be interesting and, to some degree, representative, yet it is simple enough to be analyzed as a whole. These circumstances make it likely that the human red cell plasma membrane will be the first whose molecular anatomy is known in any degree of satisfying detail. The literature concerning the proteins of erythrocyte membranes and membranes in general has been the subject of repeated review (1 9). This article will focus on the localization and modes of association of individual major polypeptides within the human red cell membrane.

Further Studies of the Parameterization of the Influence of Cumulus Convection on Large-Scale Flow

Abstract: The parameterization scheme devised by the author in a previous study has been extended to include both deep cumulus convection and shallow convection and a more rigorous derivation is given. In this scheme, the amounts and the vertical distributions of the latent heat released and the sensible heat transported by the deep cumulus are expressed solely in terms of the temperature difference between the cloud and the environment and the convergence of moisture produced by the large-scale flow. It is shown that the often stressed heating by compression in the descending region is automatically taken into consideration in this formulation. A comparison between the calculated results and the observational data of Reed and Recker for the composite easterly wave show that they are in good agreement in the regions of low-level convergence. A separate scheme is devised from the energy equations to represent the transports of heat and moisture by the shallow convection maintained by the thermal boundary layer.

Strings, monopoles, and gauge fields

Abstract: The Nielsen-Olesen interpretation of dual strings as Abrikosov flux lines is extended to the case of open-ended strings by adapting Dirac's description of magnetic monopoles to a London-type theory. The mathematical formalism turns out to be similar to that of Kalb and Ramond. Translated to hadron physics, it implies that the quarks will act as carriers of magnetic charge, permanently bound in pairs by the string bonds. However, massive axial-vector gluons can be created by hadrons.

Proteins specified by herpes simplex virus. XII. The virion polypeptides of type 1 strains.

Abstract: The polypeptides from purified virions of a herpes simplex 1 (human herpes-virus 1) strain, F1, which had been passaged a limited number of times in cell culture after isolation, formed 33 bands on electrophoretic separation in polyacrylamide gels cross-linked with N, N′-diallyltartardiamide in contrast to a maximum resolution of only 24 to 25 bands in gels cross-linked with N, N′-methylenebisacrylamide. This increase in the number of bands was due chiefly to an improved separation of glycosylated polypeptides from nonglycosylated polypeptides with which they co-electrophoresed on methylenebisacrylamide cross-linked gels. Purified virions of HSV-1 [F1] had a protein/DNA mass ratio of 10.7 ± 0.96, and based on a DNA molecular mass of 85 × 106 to 100 × 106 the estimated weight of virion polypeptides ranges from 16.4 to 19.4 × 10−16 g. The number of molecules of each polypeptide per virion ranged from less than 50 to 1,500. Comparison of the virion polypeptides of two HSV-1 strains with similar isolation and limited passage history with those of four HSV-1 strains with histories of numerous passages outside the human host showed a number of nonrandom variations in virion polypeptides. Thus, although the virion polypeptides of two strains with similar isolation and limited passage history could not be differentiated, strains with extended passage histories differed markedly from each other and from the limited passage strains in the number and electrophoretic mobility of noncapsid polypeptides and notably in those of the envelope.

Eye-Tracking Patterns in Schizophrenia

Abstract: A significant number of schizophrenic patients show patterns of smooth pursuit eye-tracking patterns that differ strikingly from the generally smooth eye-tracking seen in normals and in nonschizophrenic patients. These deviations are probably referable not only to motivational or attentional factors, but also to oculomotor involvement that may have a critical relevance for perceptual dysfunction in schizophrenia.

Social Costs of Monopoly and Regulation

Abstract: When an industry is monopolized, price rises above and output falls below the competitive level. Those who continue to buy the product at the higher price suffer a loss, but this loss is exactly offset by the additional revenue that the monopolist obtains by charging the higher price. Other consumers, who are deflected by the higher price to substitute goods, suffer a loss, that is not offset by gains to the monopolist. This is the "deadweight loss" from monopoly, and in conventional analysis the only social cost of monopoly. The loss suffered by those who continue to buy the product at the higher cost is regarded merely as a transfer from consumers to owners of the monopoly seller and has not previously been factored into the social costs of monopoly. However, the existence of an opportunity to obtain monopoly profits will attract resources into efforts to obtain monopolies, and the opportunity costs of those resources are social costs of monopoly, too. Although the tendency of monopoly rents to be transformed into costs is no longer a novel insight, its implications both for the measurement of the aggregate social costs of monopoly and for a variety of other important issues relating to monopoly and public regulation (including tax policy) continue to be ignored. The present paper is an effort to rectify this neglect. Part I introduces the material. Part II presents a simple model of the social costs of monopoly, conceived as the sum of the deadweight loss and the additional loss resulting from the competition to become a monopolist. Part III uses the model to estimate the social costs of monopoly in the United States, and the social benefits of antitrust enforcement. Part IV explores the implications of the analysis for a variety of issues relating to monopoly and public regulation, such as public policy toward price discrimination and the choice between income and excise taxation.

Eye-tracking dysfunctions in schizophrenic patients and their relatives.

Abstract: A simple test of smooth-pursuit eye movements disclosed a striking association between deviant eye tracking and clinically diagnosed schizophrenia. A high proportion of the schizophrenic patients' first-degree relatives who were not themselves clinically schizophrenic also showed deviant eye-tracking behavior. The relationship of poor eye tracking and schizophrenia is even stronger when specific psychological test evidence of thought disorder is used operationally to classify patients. The eye-tracking dysfunction may thus represent a genetic marker that can prove highly useful for studying the transmission of a vulnerability to schizophrenia. The findings suggest proprioceptive and interoceptive involvement in schizophrenic pathology.

Discussion paper: the qualitative analysis of partially specified systems

Abstract: The most difficult general problem of contemporary science is how to deal with complex systems as wholes. Most of the training of scientists, especially in the United States and Great Britain, is in the opposite direction. We are taught to isolate parts of a problem and to answer the question “What is this system?” by telling what it is made of. The dramatic advances in science in our generation have almost all been in areas where such an approach is practicable. The notable stagnations have been in areas of complex systems approached in pieces. I t is now a commonplace, a t least in ecology, that systems are complex and that the one-step linear causality is a poor predictor of ultimate outcome. Consider, for example, the problem of providing more food for hungry people. Since insects destroy a significant portion of the world’s crops, and since insecticides can be shown in the laboratory to kill insect pests, it is a plausible inference that the use of insecticides will control insects and increase food available to the hungry. Furthermore, to avoid side effects, laboratory tests may show that insecticides such as heptachlor are relatively nontoxic to mammals. Therefore, it is reasonable t o expect that the use of such insecticides would reduce insect pests, increase yields, and alleviate hunger. But often it does not work that way. First, the application of insecticide does not necessarily control the insect pest, for a t least three reasons: 1. Any insect killed by insecticide is that much less food for the predators of the pest. This in itself reduces the predator population, so that the end result is a shift in the cause of death of the pest-more are poisoned, fewer are eaten-but not in the numbers. 2. The insecticide directly reduces the predators of the pest. 3. Natural selection in the target population rapidly builds up resistance t o the insecticide. In general, an insecticide is physiologically effective for two to ten years. The side effects may also behave in unexpected ways. The relatively safe heptarhlor may be transformed into highly toxic substances under field conditions where the action of sunlight in the presence of a vast ensemble of organic and inorganic substances promotes reactions that d o not occur in the simple laboratory test. Finally, even the obvious expectation that increased food production alleviates hunger proves false. The whole domain of agricultural economics, grain prices, trade agreements, credits for farmers, land concentration, and speculation intervenes between the harvesting of a crop and its consumption. Similar problems of complex interactions have arisen in ecology, medicine, economics, administration, and other disciplines. This has led t o an interest in complexity per se and the exploration of strategies t o deal with complexity. Three general approaches have emerged. 1. Statistical-biometrical. Here the system is treated as a black box, and its

Baboons, space, time and energy

Abstract: How are social organization and ecology related to each other? Yellow baboons, hamadryas baboons, and gelada monkeys are all large, terrestrial African primates, but they have three different patterns of social organization, and they live in three, markedly different habitats: savannah, steppe-desert, and alpine heather-meadowland, respectively. An attempt is made to provide testable hypotheses and heuristic principles that can relate these two classes of phenomena.

Objective Determination of the Noise Level in Doppler Spectra

Abstract: A method is described for the objective determination of the noise level in Doppler spectra The method makes use of the physical properties of white noise and is suitable for automatic computation It is shown that the method produces reliable results when used in conjunction with the lower-bound method of estimating vertical air velocities

On the structure of speaker–auditor interaction during speaking turns

Abstract: The structure of speaker-auditor interaction during speaking turns was explored, using detailed transcriptions of language, paralanguage, and body-motion behaviors displayed by both participants in dyadic, face-toface conversations. On the basis of certain observed regularities in these behaviors, three signals were hypothesized: (a) a speaker within-turn signal, (b) an auditor back-channel signal, and (c) a speaker continuation signal. These signals were composed of various behaviors in language and in body motion. It was further hypothesized that the display of appropriate ordered sequences of these signals by both participants, served to mark 'units of interaction' during speaking turns. (Conversational analysis; speaking turns; back-channel behaviors; interrelations of verbal and nonverbal behavior; American English (Chicago)). It is axiomatic that language is used within a larger communication context. This context typically includes, among other things, both (a) other behaviors (such as those in paralanguage (Trager 1958) and in body motion) displayed conjointly with language behaviors, and (b) one or more other persons with whom the language user is interacting. It is commonplace to consider language (as that term is traditionally used) to be the province of highly structured, rule-governed phenomena. One might inquire, however, as to the possibility that such structured phenomena might be found to extend beyond the bounds of language proper, to include elements of the larger communication context. This paper reports some findings from a program of research designed to discover elements of structure in the broader communication context, not only in paralanguage and body motion, together with language, but also in the respective behaviors of both participants in dyadic, face-to-face conversations.

Explosion of a Myth: Quantity of Schooling and Exposure to Instruction, Major Educational Vehicles

Abstract: In the last few years, we have been inundated with repetitions of a new schooling myth. From the report on Equality of Educational Opportunity (Coleman et al., 1966) and the most recent reanalyses of its data (Mosteller and Moynihan, 1972) to the Jencks et al book on Inequality (1972), we have been flooded with reports of the lack of effect of schooling. These reports have discouraged professional educators and comforted those who would reduce the resources allocated to education. Moreover, recent teachers' strikes, response to the "energy" crisis, and budget cutbacks passed on as shorter school years and increased class sizes, all have decreased the amount of