Showing papers by "University of Haifa published in 2006"
17 Jun 2006
TL;DR: A novel algorithm for tracking an object in a video sequence represented by multiple image fragments or patches, which is able to handle partial occlusions or pose change and overcomes several difficulties which cannot be handled by traditional histogram-based algorithms.
Abstract: We present a novel algorithm (which we call "Frag- Track") for tracking an object in a video sequence. The template object is represented by multiple image fragments or patches. The patches are arbitrary and are not based on an object model (in contrast with traditional use of modelbased parts e.g. limbs and torso in human tracking). Every patch votes on the possible positions and scales of the object in the current frame, by comparing its histogram with the corresponding image patch histogram. We then minimize a robust statistic in order to combine the vote maps of the multiple patches. A key tool enabling the application of our algorithm to tracking is the integral histogram data structure [18]. Its use allows to extract histograms of multiple rectangular regions in the image in a very efficient manner. Our algorithm overcomes several difficulties which cannot be handled by traditional histogram-based algorithms [8, 6]. First, by robustly combining multiple patch votes, we are able to handle partial occlusions or pose change. Second, the geometric relations between the template patches allow us to take into account the spatial distribution of the pixel intensities - information which is lost in traditional histogram-based algorithms. Third, as noted by [18], tracking large targets has the same computational cost as tracking small targets. We present extensive experimental results on challenging sequences, which demonstrate the robust tracking achieved by our algorithm (even with the use of only gray-scale (noncolor) information).
1,522 citations
TL;DR: The positional cloning of Gpc-B1, a wheat quantitative trait locus associated with increased grain protein, zinc, and iron content, is reported here, and reduction in RNA levels of the multiple NAM homologs by RNA interference delayed senescence by more than 3 weeks and reduced wheat grain protein and zinc content.
Abstract: Enhancing the nutritional value of food crops is a means of improving human nutrition and health. We report here the positional cloning of Gpc-B1, a wheat quantitative trait locus associated with increased grain protein, zinc, and iron content. The ancestral wild wheat allele encodes a NAC transcription factor (NAM-B1) that accelerates senescence and increases nutrient remobilization from leaves to developing grains, whereas modern wheat varieties carry a nonfunctional NAM-B1 allele. Reduction in RNA levels of the multiple NAM homologs by RNA interference delayed senescence by more than 3 weeks and reduced wheat grain protein, zinc, and iron content by more than 30%.
1,377 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a model of resistance to organizational change was proposed and tested, where resistance was conceptualized as a multifaceted construct and relationships among resistance components and employees' personalities, the organizational context, and several work-related outcomes were examined.
Abstract: The article proposes and tests a model of resistance to organizational change. Contrary to most works on resistance, resistance was conceptualized here as a multifaceted construct. Relationships among resistance components and employees' personalities, the organizational context, and several work-related outcomes were examined. Through a study of 177 employees, both personality and context have been found to significantly associate with employees' attitudes towards a large-scale organizational change. These attitudes were, in turn, significantly associated with employees' job-satisfaction, organizational commitment, and intention to leave the organization.
902 citations
TL;DR: This article examined change over time in sentiments toward outgroup populations in European societies and found that anti-foreigner sentiment was steep in the early period (between 1988 and 1994), then leveled off after that.
Abstract: The study examines change over time in sentiments toward out-group populations in European societies. For this purpose data were compiled from four waves of the Eurobarometer surveys for 12 countries that provided detailed and comparable information on attitudes toward foreigners between 1988 and 2000. A series of multilevel hierarchical linear models were estimated to examine change in the effects of individual- and country-level sources of threat on anti-foreigner sentiment. The analysis shows a substantial rise in antiforeigner sentiment between 1988 and 2000 in all 12 countries. The rise in anti-foreigner sentiment was steep in the early period (between 1988 and 1994), then leveled off after that. Although anti-foreigner sentiment tends to be more pronounced in places with a large proportion of foreign populations and where economic conditions are less prosperous, the effects of both factors on anti-foreigner sentiment have not changed over time. The analysis also shows that anti-foreigner sentiment i...
716 citations
TL;DR: A unified model for handling dose constraints and radiation source constraints in a single mathematical framework based on the split feasibility problem is proposed and computational results demonstrate the validity of the model and the power of the proposed algorithmic scheme.
Abstract: We propose and study a unified model for handling dose constraints (physical dose, equivalent uniform dose (EUD), etc) and radiation source constraints in a single mathematical framework based on the split feasibility problem. The model does not impose on the constraints an exogenous objective (merit) function. The optimization algorithm minimizes a weighted proximity function that measures the sum of the squares of the distances to the constraint sets. This guarantees convergence to a feasible solution point if the split feasibility problem is consistent (i.e., has a solution), or, otherwise, convergence to a solution that minimally violates the physical dose constraints and EUD constraints. We present computational results that demonstrate the validity of the model and the power of the proposed algorithmic scheme.
640 citations
TL;DR: A unified account based on multiple trace theory is proposed, which states that the hippocampus is needed for re-experiencing detailed episodic and spatial memories no matter how old they are, and that it contributes to the formation and assimilation of semantic memories and schematic spatial maps.
611 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors construct CFT operators which are dual to local bulk fields in the semiclassical limit and show that at finite $N$ the number of independent commuting operators localized within a bulk volume saturates the holographic bound.
Abstract: The Lorentzian anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory correspondence implies a map between local operators in supergravity and nonlocal operators in the CFT. By explicit computation we construct CFT operators which are dual to local bulk fields in the semiclassical limit. The computation is done for general dimension in global, Poincar\'e and Rindler coordinates. We find that the CFT operators can be taken to have compact support in a region of the complexified boundary whose size is set by the bulk radial position. We show that at finite $N$ the number of independent commuting operators localized within a bulk volume saturates the holographic bound.
611 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors build on Ajzen's theory of planned behavior and on Stern et al.'s value-belief-norm theory to propose and test a model that predicts proenvironmental behavior.
Abstract: This article builds on Ajzen's theory of planned behavior and on Stern et al.'s value-belief-norm theory to propose and test a model that predicts proenvironmental behavior. In addition to relationships between beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors, we incorporate Inglehart's postmaterialist and Schwartz's harmony value dimensions as contextual antecedents at the national level. Structural equation modeling analyses of a 27-country sample provide almost full support for the mediation model. Postmaterialistic values, but not harmony, affect environmental concern; in turn, environmental concern, perceived threat, and perceived behavioral control affect willingness to sacrifice, which then affects a variety of proenvironmental behaviors. The findings emphasize the contribution of cultural conditions to the shaping of individuals'actions vis-a-vis environmental issues, alongside individual-level social-psychological variables.
609 citations
Book•
02 Feb 2006TL;DR: Sandler and Lillo-Martin this article compare sign languages with spoken languages, in order to seek the universal properties they share, drawing on general linguistic theory, showing linguistic universals in the phonology, morphology, and syntax of sign language, while also revealing non-universal aspects of its structure that must be attributed to its physical transmission system.
Abstract: Sign languages are of great interest to linguists, because while they are the product of the same brain, their physical transmission differs greatly from that of spoken languages. In this 2006 study, Wendy Sandler and Diane Lillo-Martin compare sign languages with spoken languages, in order to seek the universal properties they share. Drawing on general linguistic theory, they describe and analyze sign language structure, showing linguistic universals in the phonology, morphology, and syntax of sign language, while also revealing non-universal aspects of its structure that must be attributed to its physical transmission system. No prior background in sign language linguistics is assumed, and numerous pictures are provided to make descriptions of signs and facial expressions accessible to readers. Engaging and informative, Sign Language and Linguistic Universals will be invaluable to linguists, psychologists, and all those interested in sign languages, linguistic theory and the universal properties of human languages.
568 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focused on leadership style (participative leadership/directive leadership) as a key factor, which has an intervening impact on a functionally heterogeneous team's process and outcomes, and found that in high functional heterogeneous teams, participative leadership was positively associated with team reflection, which in turn fostered team innovation; however, this leadership style decreased team in-role performance.
475 citations
TL;DR: It is concluded that negative and cognitive symptoms may be separable, if not conceptually independent, domains of the illness and that it might be possible to develop treatments that target negative symptoms and cognitive deficits independently.
Abstract: Negative symptoms and cognitive deficits in schizophrenia share many features and are correlated in their severity on a cross-sectional basis. The question arises as to the nature of this relationship: are these symptoms the same, caused by the same factor (or factors); or is the nature of their relationship determined by other factors, such as definitional issues and common correlates? In this article we provide a conceptual overview for addressing this question and provide a selective review of the literature on the cross-sectional and longitudinal relationships between these two features of the illness. We describe 4 different models of the "true" relationship between these variables. Some data suggest that the relationship between these variables is determined by the definition of negative symptoms employed and that, in general, the correlation is moderate at the most. Further, path modeling suggests the possibility, to be addressed with later research, that correlations between negative and cognitive symptoms and everyday functional outcomes may influence the observed correlations between these variables. Thus, we conclude that negative and cognitive symptoms may be separable, if not conceptually independent, domains of the illness and that it might be possible to develop treatments that target negative symptoms and cognitive deficits independently.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the interrelationships between aspects of entrepreneurial, market, and learning orientations, and international entrepreneurial business venture (IEBV) performance and found that IEBV performance is positively related to the innovativeness component of an entrepreneurial orientation (EO), a market orientation, and a learning orientation.
Abstract: Purpose – This study examines the interrelationships between aspects of entrepreneurial, market, and learning orientations, and international entrepreneurial business venture (IEBV) performance.Design/methodology/approach – Data were collected from 396 entrepreneurs and 143 senior managers from early stage, growth‐oriented firms in the Republic of South Africa. These firms had an international focus in that 20 per cent began exporting from their inception and the remaining 80 per cent either began exporting within three years of inception or planned to export within three years of inception. Given the multidimensional nature of IEBV performance, structural equation modeling (AMOS) was used to test the measurement and substantive models.Findings – Results indicate that IEBV performance is positively related to the innovativeness component of an entrepreneurial orientation (EO), a market orientation, and a learning orientation. Contrary to expectations, the communications aspect of EO is inversely related t...
TL;DR: Structural equation path modeling indicated that exposure to terrorism was significantly related to greater loss and gain of psychosocial resources and to greater posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depressive symptoms.
Abstract: The authors conducted a large-scale study of terrorism in Israel via telephone surveys in September 2003 with 905 adult Jewish and Palestinian citizens of Israel (PCIs). Structural equation path modeling indicated that exposure to terrorism was significantly related to greater loss and gain of psychosocial resources and to greater posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depressive symptoms. Psychosocial resource loss and gain associated with terrorism were, in turn, significantly related to both greater PTSD and depressive symptoms. PCIs had significantly higher levels of PTSD and depressive symptoms than Jews. Further, PTSD symptoms in particular were related to greater authoritarian beliefs and ethnocentrism, suggesting how PTSD may lead to a self-protective style of defensive coping.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors developed the representation of local bulk fields in anti-de Sitter space by nonlocal operators on the boundary, working in the semiclassical limit and using ${\mathrm{AdS}}_{2}$ as their main example.
Abstract: We develop the representation of local bulk fields in anti-de Sitter (AdS) space by nonlocal operators on the boundary, working in the semiclassical limit and using ${\mathrm{AdS}}_{2}$ as our main example. In global coordinates we show that the boundary operator has support only at points which are spacelike separated from the bulk point. We construct boundary operators that represent local bulk operators inserted behind the horizon of the Poincar\'e patch and inside the Rindler horizon of a two-dimensional black hole. We show that these operators respect bulk locality and comment on the generalization of our construction to higher dimensional AdS black holes.
TL;DR: Evidence for both monitoring-based control and control-based monitoring occurring even in the same situation is presented and the issue of the cause-and-effect relation between subjective experience and behavior is discussed.
Abstract: Do we run away because we are frightened, or are we frightened because we run away? The authors address this issue with respect to the relation between metacognitive monitoring and metacognitive control. When self-regulation is goal driven, monitoring affects control processes so that increased processing effort should enhance feelings of competence and feelings of knowing. In contrast, when self-regulation is data driven, such feelings may be based themselves on the feedback from control processes, in which case they should decrease with increasing effort. Evidence for both monitoring-based control and control-based monitoring occurring even in the same situation is presented. The results are discussed with regard to the issue of the cause-and-effect relation between subjective experience and behavior.
TL;DR: The results suggest that the bias for local processing seen in autistic individuals might have an adverse impact on their ability to process faces and objects.
TL;DR: This study compares EI and the personality factors of the Five Factor Model (FFM) as predictors of task-induced stress responses and confirmed that low EI was related to worry states and avoidance coping, even with the FFM statistically controlled.
Abstract: Emotional intelligence (EI) may predict stress responses and coping strategies in a variety of applied settings. This study compares EI and the personality factors of the Five Factor Model (FFM) as predictors of task-induced stress responses. Participants (N = 200) were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 task conditions, 3 of which were designed to be stressful. Results confirmed that low EI was related to worry states and avoidance coping, even with the FFM statistically controlled. However, EI was not specifically related to task-induced changes in stress state. Results also confirmed that Neuroticism related to distress, worry, and emotion-focused coping, and Conscientiousness predicted use of task-focused coping. The applied utility of EI and personality measures is discussed.
TL;DR: This paper presents a supervised, semantically intensive, domain independent approach for the automatic detection of part-whole relations in text and demonstrates the importance of word sense disambiguation for this task.
Abstract: An important problem in knowledge discovery from text is the automatic extraction of semantic relations. This paper presents a supervised, semantically intensive, domain independent approach for the automatic detection of part-whole relations in text. First an algorithm is described that identifies lexico-syntactic patterns that encode part-whole relations. A difficulty is that these patterns also encode other semantic relations, and a learning method is necessary to discriminate whether or not a pattern contains a part-whole relation. A large set of training examples have been annotated and fed into a specialized learning system that learns classification rules. The rules are learned through an iterative semantic specialization (ISS) method applied to noun phrase constituents. Classification rules have been generated this way for different patterns such as genitives, noun compounds, and noun phrases containing prepositional phrases to extract part-whole relations from them. The applicability of these rules has been tested on a test corpus obtaining an overall average precision of 80.95% and recall of 75.91%. The results demonstrate the importance of word sense disambiguation for this task. They also demonstrate that different lexico-syntactic patterns encode different semantic information and should be treated separately in the sense that different clarification rules apply to different patterns.
TL;DR: Although the fallers’ adaptations were expected to reduce variability in the coordination of walking, they showed less stable gait patterns (ie, greater variability) compared with the nonfallers, which may be an important gait risk factor in elderly people with a history of falls.
Abstract: Background and Purpose. This study investigated changes in the kinematics of elderly people who experienced at least one fall 6 months prior to data collection. The authors hypothesized that, in order to decrease variability of walking, people with a history of falls would show different kinematic adaptations of their walking patterns compared with elderly people with no history of falls. Subjects and Methods. Twenty-one elderly people who had fallen within the previous 6 months (“fallers”; mean age=72.1 years, SD=4.9) and 27 elderly people with no history of falls (“nonfallers”; mean age=73.8 years, SD=6.4) walked at their preferred stride frequency (STF) as treadmill speed was gradually increased (from 0.18 m/s to 1.52 m/s) and then decreased in steps of 0.2 m/s. Gait parameter measurements were recorded, and statistical analysis was applied using walking speed and STF as independent variables. Results. Fifty-seven percent of the fallers were unable to walk at the fastest speed, whereas all nonfallers walked comfortably at all walking speeds. Although the fallers showed significantly greater STF, smaller stride lengths, smaller center-of-mass lateral sway, and smaller ankle plantar flexion and hip extension during push-off, they showed increased variability of kinematic measures in their coordination of walking compared with the nonfallers. Discussion and Conclusion. Although the fallers’ adaptations were expected to reduce variability in the coordination of walking, they showed less stable gait patterns (ie, greater variability) compared with the nonfallers. Increased variability of walking patterns may be an important gait risk factor in elderly people with a history of falls.
TL;DR: The authors examined research on home-based and school-based parental involvement and generated new research questions by employing Bronfenbrenner's ecological framework consisting of the micro-, meso-, exo-, and macro-systems.
Abstract: The objective of this review is to examine research on home-based and school-based parental involvement and generate new research questions by employing Bronfenbrenner's ecological framework consisting of the micro-, meso-, exo-, and macrosystems. This analysis shows that, although both family-based and school-based parental involvement are positively related to educational outcomes, their examination in the ecological framework prompts consideration of additional aspects of the micro- and mesosystems and their embeddedness in four exosystemic aspects (parents' networks and workplace, neighborhood, and educational policy) and two macrosystemic types (immigrant and ethnic groups). Guided by Bronfenbrenner's ecological thinking and the availability of advanced multivariate analysis methods, the next stage of this research should test multiple-step models describing factors that prompt parental involvement and mediate and moderate the parental involvement - educational outcomes links in different sociocultur...
TL;DR: In CRPS affected skin, several neuropathologic alterations were detected, including the presence of numerous abnormal thin caliber NF‐positive/MBP‐negative axons innervating hair follicles and a loss of vascular endothelial integrity and extraordinary vascular hypertrophy.
Abstract: Complex regional pain syndromes (CRPS, type I and type II) are devastating conditions that can occur following soft tissue (CRPS type I) or nerve (CRPS type II) injury. CRPS type I, also known as reflex sympathetic dystrophy, presents in patients lacking a well-defined nerve lesion, and has been questioned as to whether or not it is a true neuropathic condition with an organic basis. As described here, glabrous and hairy skin samples from the amputated upper and lower extremity from two CRPS type I diagnosed patients were processed for double-label immunofluorescence using a battery of antibodies directed against neural-related proteins and mediators of nociceptive sensory function. In CRPS affected skin, several neuropathologic alterations were detected, including: (1) the presence of numerous abnormal thin caliber NF-positive/MBP-negative axons innervating hair follicles; (2) a decrease in epidermal, sweat gland, and vascular innervation; (3) a loss of CGRP expression on remaining innervation to vasculature and sweat glands; (4) an inappropriate expression of NPY on innervation to superficial arterioles and sweat glands; and (5) a loss of vascular endothelial integrity and extraordinary vascular hypertrophy. The results are evidence of widespread cutaneous neuropathologic changes. Importantly, in these CRPS type I patients, the myriad of clinical symptoms observed had detectable neuropathologic correlates.
TL;DR: Crossan et al. as discussed by the authors reviewed theoretical and empirical work relevant to the nexus of leadership with organizational learning and proposed research directions linking leadership constructs and processes of organizational learning at different levels of analysis.
Abstract: We review theoretical and empirical work relevant to the nexus of leadership with organizational learning. We build on the classic distinction between exploration and exploitation and the 4I framework of organizational learning [Crossan, M. M., Lane, H. W., & White, R. E. (1999). An organizational learning framework: From intuition to institution. Academy of Management Review, 24, 522–537.] to present previous research and offer research directions linking leadership constructs and processes of organizational learning at different levels of analysis. For each of these links, we discuss the mediating effect of organizational context and suggest future research directions. This review is integrated using a model and propositions that depict the role of leaders with regard to new and existing learning.
TL;DR: It is argued that the quality of social relationships is dependent on duration and diversity of topics and activities carried together, and time is important, as it facilitates the development of a collective shared history and identity.
Abstract: Recent studies have shown that adolescents use the Internet not only to maintain social relationships with distant relatives and friends but also to create new relationships online; some of these friendships become integrated into their social circle. Research has focused mainly on the effect of the Internet on existing relationships or the nature of online-only ties, so studies comparing the quality of online and face-to-face relationships are missing. The goal of this study is to bridge this gap. In keeping with previous studies on social association, we argue that the quality of social relationships is dependent on duration and diversity of topics and activities carried together. Time is important, as it facilitates the development of a collective shared history and identity. Intimacy develops through the participation in shared activities and discussion of diverse issues of personal concern. Using a representative sample of the adolescent population in Israel, we find that closeness to a friend is a f...
TL;DR: It is proposed that low-status group members who are high identifiers will be unwilling to receive help from the high- status group when status relations are perceived as unstable and help is dependency-oriented.
Abstract: Integrating research on social identity processes and helping relations, the authors proposed that low-status group members who are high identifiers will be unwilling to receive help from the high-status group when status relations are perceived as unstable and help is dependency-oriented. The first experiment, a minimal group experiment, found negative reactions to help from a high-status outgroup when status relations were unstable. The 2nd and 3rd experiments, which used real groups of Israeli Arabs and Israeli Jews, replicated this finding and showed that high identifiers were less receptive to help from the high-status outgroup than low identifiers. The 4th experiment, a help-seeking experiment with real groups of competing high schools, found that the least amount of help was sought from a high-status group by high identifiers when status relations were perceived as unstable and help was dependency-oriented. Theoretical and applied implications are discussed.
TL;DR: A novel, more ecologically valid approach for neuropsychological assessment is presented, motivated by the view that metacognitive processes of self-monitoring and self-regulation are fundamental determinants of competent functioning in the real world.
Abstract: While the role of impaired cognition in accounting for functional outcome in schizophrenia is generally established by now, the overlap is far from complete. Moreover, little is known about the potential mechanisms that bridge between cognition and functional outcome. The aim of this article is to aid in closing this gap by presenting a novel, more ecologically valid approach for neuropsychological assessment. The new approach is motivated by the view that metacognitive processes of self-monitoring and self-regulation are fundamental determinants of competent functioning in the real world. The new approach incorporates experimental psychological concepts and paradigms used to study metacognition into current standard neuropsychological assessment procedures. Preliminary empirical data that support and demonstrate the utility of the new approach for assessment, as well as remediation efforts, in schizophrenia are presented and discussed.
TL;DR: For instance, the authors used fMRI to examine brain activation patterns while 16 healthy participants read brief three-sentence stories that concluded with either a literal, metaphoric, or ironic sentence.
21 May 2006
TL;DR: A description of the underlying algorithms and exposes several security vulnerabilities of the Linux random number generator are presented, and an attack on the forward security of the generator is shown which enables an adversary who exposes the state of the generators to compute previous states and outputs.
Abstract: Linux is the most popular open source project. The Linux random number generator is part of the kernel of all Linux distributions and is based on generating randomness from entropy of operating system events. The output of this generator is used for almost every security protocol, including TLS/SSL key generation, choosing TCP sequence numbers, and file system and email encryption. Although the generator is part of an open source project, its source code (about 2500 lines of code) is poorly documented, and patched with hundreds of code patches. We used dynamic and static reverse engineering to learn the operation of this generator. This paper presents a description of the underlying algorithms and exposes several security vulnerabilities. In particular, we show an attack on the forward security of the generator which enables an adversary who exposes the state of the generator to compute previous states and outputs. In addition we present a few cryptographic flaws in the design of the generator, as well as measurements of the actual entropy collected by it, and a critical analysis of the use of the generator in Linux distributions on diskless devices.
TL;DR: Pleurotus eryngii, P. ostreatus and P. pulmonarius produced laccase (Lac) both under conditions of submerged fermentation (SF) and solid-state fermentation (SSF) with all of the investigated carbon and nitrogen sources.
TL;DR: This article explored the direct and indirect links between structural heterogeneity, network heterogeneity, and political participation and found positive links between both structural and network heterogeneity that are mediated through various communication processes, and developed a path model linking structure, context, and networks into an integrated pathway to evaluate the indirect effects of heterogeneity on political participation.
Abstract: This study explores the direct and indirect links between structural heterogeneity, network heterogeneity, and political participation. We review the often conflicting scholarship on discussion network heterogeneity and political participation and place it within a multilevel conceptual framework of heterogeneity. Based on this integrated theoretical model, our study uses a combination of macro-level and individual-level survey data from various sources. First, we use a cross-sectional national data set, based on a telephone survey with a probability sample of almost 800 adults. Second, we combine these individual-level data with county-level data on religious, political, and racial heterogeneity. Based on these data sets, we develop a path model linking structure, context, and networks into an integrated pathway to evaluate the direct and indirect effects of heterogeneity on political participation. Our results show positive links between structural and network heterogeneity that are both direct and indirect, that is, mediated through various communication processes.
TL;DR: The present analysis reveals that the degree of competition between commensurate rivals depends on their proximity to a meaningful standard, and examines the psychological processes underlying this phenomenon to reveal that similarity to a standard exerts a direct impact on the basic unidirectional drive upward, beyond the established effects of commensurability and dimension relevance.
Abstract: Social comparison theories typically imply a comparable degree of competition between commensurate rivals who are competing on a mutually important dimension However, the present analysis reveals that the degree of competition between such rivals depends on their proximity to a meaningful standard Studies 1 to 3 test the prediction that individuals become more competitive and less willing to maximize profitable joint gains when they and their commensurate rivals are highly ranked (eg, #2 vs #3) than when they are not (eg, #202 vs #203) Studies 4 to 6 then generalize these findings, showing that the degree of competition also increases in the proximity of other meaningful standards, such as the bottom of a ranking scale or a qualitative threshold in the middle of a scale Studies 7 and 8 further examine the psychological processes underlying this phenomenon and reveal that proximity to a standard exerts a direct impact on the basic unidirectional drive upward, beyond the established effects of com