Showing papers by "University of Lapland published in 2003"

Influence of the Arctic Oscillation and El Niño‐Southern Oscillation (ENSO) on ice conditions in the Baltic Sea: The wavelet approach

Abstract: [1] Variability in time series of ice conditions in the Baltic Sea is examined within the context of atmospheric circulation represented by the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) and Arctic Oscillation (AO) winter indices using the wavelet approach. We develop methods of assessing statistical significance and confidence intervals of cross-wavelet phase and wavelet coherence. Cross-wavelet power for the time series indicates that the times of largest variance in ice conditions are in excellent agreement with significant power in the AO at 2.2–3.5, 5.7–7.8, and 12–20 year periods, similar patterns are also seen with the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) and Nino3 sea surface temperature (Nino3) series. Wavelet coherence shows in-phase linkages between the 2.2–7.8 and 12–20 year period signals in both tropical and Arctic atmospheric circulation and also with ice conditions in the Baltic Sea. These results are consistent with GCM simulations showing dynamical connections between high-latitude surface conditions, tropical sea surface temperatures mediated by tropical wave propagation, the wintertime polar vortex, and the AO and with models of sea ice and oceanic feedbacks at decadal periods.

Spatial similarity of urban bird communities: a multiscale approach

Abstract: Aim Human land use, especially urbanization, might homogenize the world's biota. The objective of this study is to find out if urbanization homogenizes wintering bird communities, and if habitat type affects the spatial variation of urban bird communities across spatial scales. Location We compared the quantitative similarity of winter bird communities between town centres, apartment block areas and single-family house areas across regional and local scales in five towns in northern Finland. Methods The wintering birds were surveyed using a single-visit study plot (30 ha) method in January and February 2001. The validity of single-visit and single-year data was confirmed by using data from several-visit surveys and multi-year data set. The level of urbanization was measured according to the number of inhabitants and general structure of the habitat. Results Temporal variability in species richness and total number of individuals was low, both between winters and within winter. Bird community similarity between different habitat types within a single town was about the same as that in similar habitats in different towns. At the regional scale, bird community similarity between town centres (30%) was lower than between areas of apartment blocks (54%) or between areas of single-family houses (54%). We detected a threshold point between towns of 35,000 and 105,000 inhabitants and between town sizes of 5.0-8.5 km in diameter where human impact causes marked changes in bird community structure. At the local scale, bird community similarity level between apartment block areas (49%) and single-family house areas (62%) were about the same. Passer domesticus, Parus major and Pica pica dominated the bird communities in residential areas. Different habitat factors affected bird species abundances on the local and regional scales. Conclusions Urbanization cannot be seen as a process that monotonically increases the similarity of bird communities. Our results indicate that the similarity between urban bird communities is dependent on the size of the town, location of the study site within the town and especially the local habitat structure. Because different habitat factors affected bird species abundances, it is difficult to extrapolate bird-habitat relationships derived from one scale to other scales. In wintertime, single-family house areas are important biodiversity hotspots in cities. Therefore, it is especially important to understand the factors affecting the occurrence of birds in the single-family house area in order to maintain or even increase diversity on winter birds in other urban habitats.

Trust Management in the Finnish Ministries: Evaluation of Management Systems

Abstract: Our purpose was to find out to what extent civil servants—managers, specialists, and experts—in 13 Finnish ministries have confidence in their management systems. We defined trust as a kind of deep sentiment, more fundamental than mere acceptance, satisfaction or legitimacy. Trust and mistrust are strong motivators for cooperation and collaboration. They are logical outcomes of social interaction in terms of management systems and context. We found out that civil servants are more likely to trust management if it acts professionally with no emphasis on political factors. Ministers, for instance, can efficiently earn their trust with administrative experience and behavior norms. Our analysis showed that there are both well‐trusted and ill‐trusted components in management systems implicating that management must be the object of continuous development. As a whole civil servants have more confidence in work community than in strategy, structure, people policies, and administrative processes of the m...

Ice cores from Svalbard - useful archives of past climate and pollution history

Abstract: Ice cores from the relatively low-lying ice caps in Svalbard have not been widely exploited in climatic and environmental studies due to uncertainties about the effect of melt water percolation. However, results from two recent Svalbard ice cores, at Lomonosovfonna (1250 m asl) and Austfonna (750 m asl), have shown that with careful site selection, high-resolution sampling and multiple chemical analyses, it is possible to recover ice cores with partly preserved annual signals. These cores are estimated to cover at least the past 600 years and have been dated using a combination of known reference horizons and glacial modeling. The δ18O data from both Lomonosovfonna and Austfonna ice cores suggest that the 20th century was the warmest during the past 600 years. A comparison of the ice core and sea ice records from this period suggests that sea ice extent and Austfonna δ18O are linked over the past 400 years. This may reflect the position of the storm tracks and their direct influence on the relatively low altitude Austfonna. Lomonosovfonna may be less sensitive to such changes and primarily record atmospheric changes due to its higher elevation. The anthropogenic influence on Svalbard environment is illustrated by increased levels of non-sea-salt sulphate, nitrate, acidity, fly-ash and organic contaminants particularly during the second half of 1900s. Decreased concentrations of some components in recent decades most likely reflect emission and use restrictions. However, some current-use organic pesticide compounds show growing concentrations in near surface layers.

Changes in geometry and subglacial drainage of Midre Lovénbreen, Svalbard, determined from digital elevation models

Abstract: Digital elevation models (DEMs) of the bed and surface of the polythermal Midre Lovenbreen, Svalbard, are used to identify changes in glacier geometry between 1977 and 1995. The calculated mean annual mass balance (−0·61 m water equivalent (w.e.) a−1) is more negative than that derived from field measurements (−0·35 m w.e. a−1), although the error associated with this value (±0·7 m a−1) suggests that the difference may be accounted for by errors. However, similar discrepancies between DEM-based and field-based measurements of mass balance have been reported elsewhere in Svalbard. Although errors may be responsible, patterns of surface elevation change may also be explained in terms of patterns of ablation, accumulation, and dynamics. The theoretical structure of the subglacial drainage system is modelled using different assumptions about subglacial water pressure, in 1977 and 1995. These reconstructions are compared with the observed positions of proglacial outlet streams. Decreasing subglacial water pressure results in a decrease in the influence of surface morphology and an increase in the role of the bed topography on drainage routing, which generally leads to more dispersed drainage. Long-term changes in the position of proglacial outlet streams occur as a result of changes in glacier geometry, but short-term changes may also occur in response to early season water pressures, controlled by meteorological and hydrological conditions. Copyright © 2003 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Population genetic structure of male black grouse (Tetrao tetrix L.) in fragmented vs. continuous landscapes.

Abstract: We investigated the association of habitat fragmentation with genetic structure of male black grouse Tetrao tetrix . Using 14 microsatellites, we compared the genetic differentiation of males among nine localities in continuous lowland habitats in Finland to the genetic differentiation among 14 localities in fragmented habitats in the Alps (France, Switzerland and Italy). In both areas, we found significant genetic differentiation. However, the average differentiation, measured as θ , was more than three times higher in the Alps than in Finland. The greater differentiation found in the Alps is probably due to the presence of mountain ridges rising above natural habitats of the species, which form barriers to gene flow, and to a higher influence of genetic drift resulting from lower effective sizes in highly fragmented habitats. The detection of isolation by distance in the Alps suggests that gene flow among populations does occur. The genetic variability measured as gene diversity H E and allelic richness A was lower in the Alps than in Finland. This could result from the higher fragmentation and/or from the fact that populations in the Alps are isolated from the main species range and have a lower effective size than in Finland. This study suggests that habitat fragmentation can affect genetic structure of avian species with relatively high dispersal propensities.

Factors influencing nurses’ use of nonpharmacological pain alleviation methods in paediatric patients

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to describe the factors promoting and hindering nurses' use of nonpharmacological methods in children's surgical pain relief, and demographic variables related to this. The data were collected by a Likert-type questionnaire, which was completed by nurses (n = 162) who were working in one of the paediatric surgical wards located in university hospitals in Finland. The response rate was 99%. Factor analysis was used to analyse the data. According to the results, five promoting factors (nurse's competence, versatile use of pain alleviation methods, workload/time, child's age/ability to cooperate, and parental participation), as well as five hindering factors (nurse's insecurity, beliefs regarding parental roles/child's ability to express pain, heavy workload/lack of time, limited use of pain alleviation methods, and work organizational model/patient turnover rate) were found to influence the nurses' use of nonpharmacological methods. Almost all of the nurses (98%) hoped to make progress in their career and to learn different pain alleviation methods, but less than half of them (47%) agreed that they had obtained sufficient education regarding these methods. Demographic variables such as the nurse's age, education, and work experience were significantly related to certain factors influencing the use of nonpharmacological methods. In conclusion, paediatric patients' surgical pain relief in the hospital was affected more by the nurses' personal characteristics, than by work-related factors or characteristics of the child or the child's parents. The nurses had positive attitudes towards learning different pain alleviation methods, which constitute the basis for the development of pain management in paediatric patients.

Nutrient status of Baltic Sea ice: Evidence for control by snow‐ice formation, ice permeability, and ice algae

Abstract: [1] Samples of land-fast sea ice collected along the Finnish coast of the Baltic Sea, between latitudes 60.2°N and 65.7°N, in January to April 2000 were analyzed for physical, biological, and chemical parameters. Both spatial and temporal variability were investigated. Snow-ice contributed in average a third of the total ice thickness, while the snow fraction (by mass) of the ice was 20% on average. Snow-ice formation increased the nitrogen concentrations substantially, mainly in the upper parts of the ice cover. Phosphorus on the other hand was controlled by biological uptake, with distinct maxima in the bottommost parts of the ice cover. The chlorophyll-a concentrations were dependent on the physical properties of the ice to some extent. In more saline waters the chlorophyll-a concentrations in the ice were variable (1–17 μg l−1). However, in the less saline waters of the Bothnian Bay the concentrations were generally considerably lower (<1 μg l−1) than elsewhere. This is presumably caused by formation of ice of low salinity, due to the low ambient salinity in the area and the under-ice flow of river waters, and formation of ice that has no habitable space for ice algae. Atmospheric nutrients possibly enhance the magnitude of the ice algae bloom, through downward flushing of surface deposited nutrients during periods when the ice was permeable. We surmise that atmospheric supply of nutrients plays an important role in biological productivity within the Baltic Sea ice sheet and potentially also in under-ice waters.

The drainage pattern of Hansbreen and Werenskioldbreen, two polythermal glaciers in Svalbard

Abstract: To improve our understanding of Svalbard-type polythermal glacier drainage, hydraulic geometry models of the subglacial hydrology of two contrasting glaciers in Svalbard have been constructed. The models are tested against a uniquely long and rich set of field observations spanning 45 years. Digital elevation models (DEMs) were constructed from bedrock data measured with ground penetrating radar and surface data of two medium-sized polythermal glaciers, Hansbreen and Werenskioldbreen, in south-west Spitsbergen. Hansbreen has a low angle bed with over-deepenings and a calving front, while Werenskioldbreen has steeper bed and terminates on land. Together they are representative of many Svalbard glaciers. The DEMs were used to derive maps of hydraulic potential and subglacial drainage networks. Validation of the models was done using field observations including location mapping and speleological exploration of active moulins, positions of main river outflows, dyetracing and water chemistry studies, and observations of water pressure inside moulins. Results suggest that the water pressure is generally close to ice overburden pressure but varies greatly depending on local conditions such as bed location, the thickness of cold ice layer, the thickness of the glacier and seasonal changes in meltwater input.

Glacier changes in southern Spitsbergen, Svalbard, 1901-2000

Abstract: High-resolution ground-penetrating radar surveys at 50 MHz on the polythermal glaciers Hornbreen, Hambergbreen and several surrounding glaciers in southern Spitsbergen, Svalbard, are presented and interpreted. Accurate positioning was obtained using differential global positioning system (DGPS). Digital elevation models (DEMs) of the bedrock and surface were constructed. Comparison of DGPS data and surface DEMs with data from the topographic mappings from 1936 oblique stereoscopic aerial photographs and from Mission Russe in 1899–1901 shows that the Hornbreen and Hambergbreen surfaces are about 60–100 m thinner today in the upper part than at the beginning of the 20th century. Hornbreen has retreated by 13.5 km from the central part of the front, and Hambergbreen by 16 km. All the fronts of the nearby east-coast glaciers in this area have retreated. The bedrock DEM shows that the Hornbreen and Hambergbreen beds lie at –25 to 25 m a.s.l. The combination of sub-sea-level fronts and increasing steepness of the glaciers suggests that the low-lying glaciated valley filled by Hornbreen and Hambergbreen may become a partially inundated ice-free isthmus within perhaps 100 years.

Age Differences in the Response of Willow Tits (Parus montanus) to Conspecific Alarm Calls

Abstract: Predation is an important mortality factor in wintering birds. To counter this, birds produce alarm calls in the presence of predators which serve to warn conspecifics. In social hierarchical bird flocks, adults survive the winter better than juveniles and therefore survival strategies probably vary with social status. This study examined the differential responses to alarm calls by free-living willow tits, Parus montanus, in dominance-structured winter flocks in Finland. To explore the age-dependent differences in response to conspecific alarm calls, a series with three alarm calls was played to focal adults and juveniles while they sat in the middle section of a spruce branch. Immediately after the playback, juvenile willow tits moved more often, flew longer distances and changed branches more often than did adults. Previous mammal studies have shown that juveniles are more likely to flee than adults after hearing conspecific alarm calls. The current study demonstrates that similar age-dependent responses to conspecific alarm calls occur in birds also. These findings reflect an increased vulnerability to predators or lack of experience of young birds.

Dating Antarctic blue ice areas using a novel ice flow model

Abstract: [1] We present a new type of flow model suitable for Antarctic blue ice areas, with application to dating ice for paleoclimate purposes. The volume conserving model uses field data for surface velocities, mass balance and ice thickness along a flow line, with parameterized variation of ice rheology with depth to produce particle trajectories and isochrones. The model is tested on the contrasting Allan Hills Near Western Ice Field and the Scharffenbergbotnen blue ice fields in Antarctica by comparing predicted ages with ages inferred from meteorites and 14C data. During the glacial periods, ice surface velocities at the Allan Hills must have been 25% less, and accumulation rates 50% less than present day values in order to match meteorite ages. In contrast, Scharffenbergbotnen velocities have probably been fairly constant over time due to the atypical valley where it resides.

Sensitivity analysis of discharge in the Arctic USA basin, East-European Russia

Abstract: The high sensitivity of the Arctic implies that impact of climate change and related environmental changes on river discharge can be considerable. Sensitivity of discharge to changes in precipitation, temperature, permafrost and vegetation, was studied in the Usa basin, Northeast-European Russia. For this purpose, a distributed hydrological model (RHINEFLOW) was adapted. Furthermore, the effect of climate change simulated by a GCM (HADCM2S750 integration) on runoff was assessed, including indirect effects of permafrost thawing and changes in vegetation distribution. The study shows that discharge in the Usa basin is highly sensitive to changes in precipitation and temperature. The effect of precipitation change is present throughout the year, while temperature changes affect discharge only in seasons when temperature fluctuates around the freezing point (April and October). Discharge is rather sensitive to changes in vegetation. Sensitivity to permafrost occurrence is high in winter, because infiltration and consequently base flow increases if permafrost melts. The effect of climate change simulated by the scenario on discharge was significant. Peak flow can both decrease (by 22%) and increase (by 19%) comparedwith present-day, depending on the amount of winter precipitation. Also, runoff peaks earlier in the season. These results can have implications for the magnitude and timing of the runoff peak, break-up and water-levels.

A legal framework for E-government

Abstract: The transformation of our society into a network society is proceeding at a startling pace. One often hears the term legal framework in this context, but few details of that framework are forthcoming. What this framework is or should be like has generally not been adequately discussed. If we are content to watch it take shape guided by directives formulated on varying bases and their equally varied implementations, there is serious risk that the legal order will become fragmented. A clear frame of reference can easily became chaos, which, will pose a threat to our basic rights. The point of departure in this article is the assessment of e-government as a complex of information processes. These are evaluated in the light of the requirements of the modern constitutional state. The aim is to determine the relationship between the requirements for good government and the new digital operating environment. Such an analysis is a rarity, although different countries have set out to develop electronic services in government on the strength of advances in information technology.

A Legal Framework for e-Government

Abstract: The transformation of our society into a network society is proceeding at a startling pace. One often hears the term legal framework in this context, but few details of that framework are forthcoming. What this framework is or should be like has generally not been adequately discussed. If we are content to watch it take shape guided by directives formulated on varying bases and their equally varied implementations, there is serious risk that the legal order will become fragmented. A clear frame of reference can easily became chaos, which, will pose a threat to our basic rights. The point of departure in this article is the assessment of e-government as a complex of information processes. These are evaluated in the light of the requirements of the modern constitutional state. The aim is to determine the relationship between the requirements for good government and the new digital operating environment. Such an analysis is a rarity, although different countries have set out to develop electronic services in government on the strength of advances in information technology.

Forest Management and Biodiversity

Abstract: In this paper, some basic questions concerning sampling methods and the interpretation of results in the study of beetles and polypores are discussed. The focus is on the stand-level changes (alpha-diversity), whereas the landscape-level changes (beta-diversity) are discussed only briefly.

Modeling the socio-cultural context

Abstract: It's been noticed that recognizing the end user's needs and expectations are increasingly important factors for creating successful products. In the Mode-project we are studying the socio-cultural context of users and products and developing methods to model it for the use of industrial design and product development. The functionality or usefulness of products is not our main interest, instead we are keen to know what kind of meanings people give to products and what kind of role they have in the social interaction. The starting point for the method development is scenario building. Design scenarios make the context understandable and they can be used as a communication tool during the product development process.

Embodied subjects and intentionality in virtual learning environments

Abstract: The aim of the paper is to introduce the role of 'intentionality' of students' embodied subjectivity in virtual learning environments. Our intentional stance is a means to interpret the behavior of students. Our empirical material consists of narratives and discussions produced by students in a virtual university course and it gives an authentic view of reality in this respect. These narratives were continuously in process of construction within social interaction. We don't interpret the emotions and feelings posed in students' texts as psychical facts, as if they were hidden at the bottom of consciousness; rather they are visible types of behaviour. Intentions have three tasks: to orient students to work together in virtual learning environment, to involve into group processing, and to get students to know each other. These facts form the central factors in virtual learning environments.

The Human Rights Dimensions of International Peace and Security and Humanitarian Intervention After 9/11

Abstract: While international peace and security require the stability provided by the Westphalian system of International Law, it can at the same time be endangered by massive violations of human rights. On the other hand, Human Rights can only be enjoyed in times of peace while the Westphalian system can limit the effective and universal enforcement of Human Rights in cases in which the UN Security Council has failed to take action under Chapter VII. This paper is an attempt at reconciling these needs - which are at times directly contrary, and at other times interlinked - ones with a special focus on massive violations of human rights which are not being addressed effectively by the UN Security Council. To this end, we will look at the Human Rights dimensions of international peace and security outlined above before we come to the core issue of the paper, the legality of the use of force for the protection of Human Rights in cases in which the UN Security Council fails to act, or, in other words, the question of how far the need for universal respect for human rights can overrun the need for peace, given the links between both factors indicated above. At the end of the paper will be a suggestion for a step-by-step approach regarding the effective enforcement of Human Rights aimed at preserving international peace and security as much as possible while at the same time taking into account national and regional systems for the protection of Human Rights. Special attention will be given to the role of Humanitarian Intervention in a world dominated by the war against terrorism in the wake of the September 11, 2001, Al Qaida terrorist attacks against the World Trade Center, the Pentagon as well as in Pennsylvania.

Local Environmental Dynamics

Abstract: The eight chapters comprising this section of the book provide an overview of the range of contemporary disturbance regimes in the terrestrial ecosystems of northern North America and Russia. For the most part, the authors discuss relatively long-term patterns of vegetation and soil recovery and rehabilitation. It is refreshing to review such a collection of chapters because the standard for many years has been to limit applied investigations treating disturbance to experiments of one to three years. The fact that most arctic plants grow fairly slowly, and individuals of the dominant species can live for many decades or even centuries (or perhaps longer), means that studies which extend over at least several decades will provide greater understanding of ecosystem dynamics and patterns of response to anthropogenic disturbance. This is not to deny the value of controlled short-term manipulations in the field or in the laboratory, but simply to highlight the value of data sets which can encompass much or all of the dominant species’ life histories at a given study site and need not necessarily substitute ‘space for time’ (sensu Pickett 1989) to encompass whole plant populations and communities.

Vegetation Responses to Anthropogenic Disturbance

Abstract: In this paper we briefly summarize literature on naturally regenerating flora and vegetation of mechanically disturbed terrain associated with industrial development. We also propose a general study design to assess not only the rate of regeneration under prevailing — and possibly changing — climate conditions, but in particular the relative role of arctic, boreal species to deduce future trends in the composition of the flora, structure and function of the vegetation and evolution of the tundra biome.

The 40th Anniversary of the 1963 Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water (1963 NTB)

Abstract: The shift from a state/government dependant to a commercially oriented industry and the global context of the space business require new ways to finance space equipment. This is also supported by the immense amount of financial resources that are involved in the space industry. In response to this trend, the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law (UNIDROIT), has elaborated a Convention on Mobile Equipment. As regards space equipment a group of international experts formed the “Space Working Group” and commenced drafting a protocol specific to space assets, which shall provide the legal frame for modern asset based financing. This paper provides economic and legal background information for the raison d’etre of the Convention/Protocol and identifies its merits. The main focus is the comparison of the current draft Space Protocol with German Law, in particular the different opt-ins and opt-outs. Due to these options a state is given the opportunity to choose between certain provisions by way of declaration. The paper examines different options and offers recommendations from a German industrial point of view. In conclusion, it points out the compatibility of the Convention/Protocol with German law and underlines its importance for the German Space Industry. The significance of the Convention/Protocol may even increase in the future, when production in space and permanent space transport through reusable launch vehicles will be technically achieved. 1. A NEW INTERNATIONAL LEGAL REGIMEN FOR SPACE ASSETS: The development from a state/government dependant to a commercially oriented space industry and the global context of the space business require new ways to finance space equipment. This is also supported by the immense amount of financial resources that are involved in the space industry. In response to this trend, UNIDROIT has elaborated the “Convention on International Interests in Mobile Equipment”, hereinafter referred to as the 1 UNIDROIT is the acronym of the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law. It is an independent intergovernmental organisation with a history reaching back to the year 1926. Its purpose is to study needs and methods for modernising, harmonising and co-ordinating private and in “Convention”. As regards space equipment, a group of international experts formed the “Space Working Group” (SWG) in 1997 and commenced drafting the “Protocol on Matters specific to Space Assets, hereinafter referred to as the “Protocol”, which shall provide the legal frame for modern asset based financing. This paper refers to the draft Protocol after the Rome meeting of the Space Working Group dated January 2002, UNIDROIT 2 The full text of the Convention is available for download under http://www.unidroit.org 3 The text of the current preliminary draft Protocol can be accessed via: http://www.unidroit.org/english/internationalinteres ts/draftspaceprotocol/72j-10-e.pdf 54th International Astronautical Congress of the International Astronautical Federation, the International Academy of Astronautics, and the International Institute of Space Law 29 September 3 October 2003, Bremen, Germany IAC-03-IISL.1.13 Copyright © 2003 by the author(s). Published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., with permission. Released to IAF/IAA/AIAA to publish in all forms. 2 Doc. No. 10. The development of the Protocol is still an ongoing process. 2. BACKGROUND, MERITS AND STRUCTURE OF THE CONVENTION/PROTOCOL: Before analysing the implications with German law, it is required to extract the relevant rationales and merits of the Convention/Protocol. 2.1 Economic Background: The evolution of the international space industry shows a shift from a formerly state/government dependent to a more and more privatised industry. To a great extent the satellite industry is the motor of this privatisation process. Whilst during the times of cold war many satellites were used for military purposes, more and more of today’s satellites are utilized commercially. The spectrum of modern satellite applications ranges from telephony and mobile services over internet access to television and radio broadcasting. Growing revenues and profit margins of the majority of satellite operators show the economic success and profitability of the satellite operating business. From 1965 until the end of 2001 531 geostationary satellites were sold with an estimated value of 47.9 billion USD plus another 227 satellites worth 2.8 billion USD for low earth orbit constellations. However, after the Globalstar and Iridium disasters and due to an overcapacity in the telecommunication market, it became more difficult to obtain financial resources and 4 For revenues of satellite operators see Euroconsult: “Operating revenue of satellite operators 1998-2000”, page 24; for profit margins see Euroconsult: “Profit margins of satellite service providers 1997-2000”, page 28 5 See Euroconsult page 81; for a complete overview see Euroconsult “Commercial geostationary communication satellites: Past deliveries and estimated backlog of prime contractors, 19652001”, page 82. the commercialisation process experienced a slow-down. In particular new satellite operators suffer from financing difficulties since many of them do not have the financial standing to be attractive for lenders. A shift from debtor-based to assetbased financing, as provided by the UNIDROIT initiative, would enable these operators to obtain the required resources giving lenders the opportunity to sell the respective assets in case the borrower is in default. 2.2. Legal Background: Apart from the aforementioned economic background the UNIDROIT initiative has also a legal dimension. Many legal systems as regards security rights follow the rule “lex rei sitae” and apply the rules of the State where the asset is situated. Due to the international context of the space industry where a space asset during its construction phase may move across various national borders and due to the fact that space assets, once they are launched, are located in outer space and then beyond the jurisdiction of any State, this approach seems inappropriate for space assets. 2.3. The Convention and its two-tier approach: In order to overcome the problems connected with high value assets passing national frontiers, UNIDROIT has elaborated the Convention, which was originally intended to cover various categories of movable assets. However, this plan was later abandoned in favour of a two-tier approach where all the general rules are contained in the Convention and the asset-specific rules are provided by the 3 respective protocols for aircraft equipment, railway rolling stock and space assets. The driving force behind this decision was the aviation industry, which 6 See Article II of the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, 1967, UNTS 205, 208, hereinafter referred to as OST.