Showing papers by "University of Reading published in 1998"
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors trace the changing world economic scenario for international business over the past two decades, and then examine its implications for the location of foreign direct investment and multinational enterprise activity, concluding that many of the explanations of the 1970s and early 1980s need to be modified as firm-specific assets have become mobile across natural boundaries.
Abstract: This article first traces the changing world economic scenario for international business over the past two decades, and then goes on to examine its implications for the location of foreign direct investment and multinational enterprise activity. It suggests that many of the explanations of the 1970s and early 1980s need to be modified as firm-specific assets have become mobile across natural boundaries. A final section of the article examines the dynamic interface between the value-added activities of multinational enterprises in different locations.
1,980 citations
TL;DR: The characteristic flavour of cooked meat derives from thermally induced reactions occurring during heating, principally the Maillard reaction and the degradation of lipid as discussed by the authors, which account for the large number of volatile compounds found in cooked meat.
1,091 citations
TL;DR: The main focus of the Hymer-Kindleberger theory (Hymer, 1976; Kindleberger, 1969) and the product cycle theory (Vernon 1966) was exporting versus FDI as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Empirical studies of FDI have become much more ambitious in scope over the last 30 years. In the 1960s, the main focus of the Hymer-Kindleberger theory (Hymer, 1976; Kindleberger, 1969) and the product cycle theory (Vernon 1966) was exporting versus FDI. In the 1970s the internalisation approach identified licensing, franchising and subcontracting as other strategic options. The resurgence of mergers and acquisitions in the 1980s — often as a ‘quick fix’ route to globalisation — highlighted the choice between greenfield ventures and acquisitions. At the same time, the growing participation of US firms in IJVs drew attention to the role of cooperative arrangements.
885 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the radiative forcing due to changes in the concentrations of the most important well mixed greenhouse gases (WMGG) since pre-industrial time is estimated to be 2.25 Wm−2.
Abstract: We have performed new calculations of the radiative forcing due to changes in the concentrations of the most important well mixed greenhouse gases (WMGG) since pre-industrial time. Three radiative transfer models are used. The radiative forcing due to CO2, including shortwave absorption, is 15% lower than the previous IPCC estimate. The radiative forcing due to all the WMGG is calculated to 2.25 Wm−2, which we estimate to be accurate to within about 5%. The importance of the CFCs is increased by about 20% relative to the total effect of all WMGG compared to previous estimates. We present updates to simple forcing-concentration relationships previously used by IPCC.
725 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine the existing modelling literature, which contains a large number of suggested reasons for international differences in accounting, and propose a preliminary parsimonious model to explain the initial split of accounting systems into two classes.
Abstract: The article first examines the existing modelling literature, which contains a large number of suggested reasons for international differences in accounting. After examining terminological problems, a preliminary parsimonious model is developed to explain the initial split of accounting systems into two classes. The term ‘accounting system’ is used here to mean the financial reporting practices used by an enterprise. A country might exhibit the use of several such systems in any one year or over time. Consequently, it should be systems and not countries that are classified. The model proposes a two-way classification using two variables: the strengths of equity markets and the degree of cultural dominance. Implications for classifiers and rule-makers are suggested.
664 citations
TL;DR: The presence of Hox class genes that are typical of triploblasts in Myxozoa is reported, which confirms MyXozoa's phylogenetic affinity with the Bilateria and reveals an extreme example of parasitic degeneracy.
Abstract: Hox genes, which play key roles in the development of body plans, have been described from a variety of metazoans1. Here we report the presence of Hox class genes that are typical of triploblasts in Myxozoa, formerly a protozoan taxon. This finding confirms Myxozoa's phylogenetic affinity with the Bilateria and reveals an extreme example of parasitic degeneracy.
563 citations
TL;DR: The physical meaning of several different tropical tropopause definitions is examined using atmospheric data from a variety of sources, and model output as mentioned in this paper, and the results from a baroclinic model with imposed diabatic heating are used to support the hypothesis that both these features can be attributed to the direct response of the atmosphere to a large-scale region of tropospheric diaboastic heating.
Abstract: The physical meaning of several different tropical tropopause definitions is examined using atmospheric data from a variety of sources, and model output. The conventional lapse-rate definition of the tropopause appears to have little physical relevance in the tropics, although it is easy to use operationally. A four year ‘climatology’ of the tropical tropopause from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) analyses is presented. The zonal mean picture shows the annual cycle in properties that has been related to the extratropical stratospheric wave pump. However, there are large and important zonal asymmetries. These include a relatively low pressure and temperature at the tropopause near the west Pacific heating region during December—January—February, and a striking region with low pressure on the tropopause over India during June—July—August. Results from a baroclinic model with imposed diabatic heating are used to support the hypothesis that both these features can be attributed to the direct response of the atmosphere to a large-scale region of tropospheric diabatic heating. It is proposed that the stratospheric pump provides the general picture for the upper troposphere/lower stratosphere region, but that tropospheric convection is crucial in determining the important zonal asymmetries in this region.
509 citations
TL;DR: The appearance of a major work of survey and synthesis, which goes into successive editions (Caves, 1996) is a clear sign that a subject has reached maturity as mentioned in this paper, and so the question naturally arises as to whether stagnation has set in to international business research.
Abstract: The appearance of a major work of survey and synthesis, which goes into successive editions (Caves, 1996), is a clear sign that a subject has reached maturity. Maturity can sometimes indicate stagnation, however, and so the question naturally arises as to whether stagnation has set in to international business research. Caves’ second edition is an encyclopaedic work, but it is very much like the first edition in its general structure. Only the details have been modified in the light of recent research.
476 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the impact of micro-finance on the recipient household's income was investigated in seven developing countries and the authors attempted to relate such impact to the institutions' design features.
454 citations
TL;DR: It is proposed that the origin of distinct Hox and ParaHox genes by gene-cluster duplication facilitated an increase in body complexity during the Cambrian explosion and it is argued that this ‘ParaHox’ gene cluster is an ancient paralogue of the Hox gene cluster.
Abstract: Genes of the Hox cluster are restricted to the animal kingdom and play a central role in axial patterning in divergent animal phyla1. Despite its evolutionary and developmental significance, the origin of the Hox gene cluster is obscure. The consensus is that a primordial Hox cluster arose by tandem gene duplication close to animal origins2,3,4,5. Several homeobox genes with high sequence identity to Hox genes are found outside the Hox cluster and are known as ‘dispersed’ Hox-like genes; these genes may have been transposed away from an expanding cluster6. Here we show that three of these dispersed homeobox genes form a novel gene cluster in the cephalochordate amphioxus. We argue that this ‘ParaHox’ gene cluster is an ancient paralogue (evolutionary sister) of the Hox gene cluster; the two gene clusters arose by duplication of a ProtoHox gene cluster. Furthermore, we show that amphioxus ParaHox genes have co-linear developmental expression patterns in anterior, middle and posterior tissues. We propose that the origin of distinct Hox and ParaHox genes by gene-cluster duplication facilitated an increase in body complexity during the Cambrian explosion.
454 citations
TL;DR: These results confirm that wheat yields would be reduced considerably if, as modellers suggest, high temperature extremes become more frequent as a result of increased variability in temperature associated with climate change.
TL;DR: The growth and utilization of annual intercrops is reviewed with particular reference, where feasible, to temperate regions and a number of cereal-based intercrop combinations are considered, concentrating specifically on their value for forage production.
Abstract: Cereals grown for forage are increasing in importance in the rations of ruminants in the UK and have the potential to supply high proportions of energy-rich forage in their diets. However, such diets usually require some degree of protein supplementation. Crop mixtures, generally referred to as intercrops, have the potential to boost the forage protein content of diets as well as having a number of agronomic benefits. In this paper, the growth and utilization of annual intercrops is reviewed with particular reference, where feasible, to temperate regions. General agronomic and feeding issues associated with cereal intercrops are outlined together with the practicalities of field-scale management of intercrops in highly mechanized systems. A number of cereal-based intercrop combinations are also considered, concentrating specifically on their value for forage production. The future potential for different combinations is discussed and research recommendations made.
TL;DR: In this paper, a new model is developed for assessing multiple sources of nitrogen in catchments, which allows for plant uptake, surface and sub-surface pathways and can simulate up to six land uses simultaneously.
TL;DR: A review of the mechanisms that control neutrally stable turbulent boundary-layer flow over hills and waves, their relative magnitudes, and how they exert their greatest effects in different regions of the flow can be found in this article.
Abstract: This is a review of the mechanisms that control neutrally stable turbulent boundary-layer flow over hills and waves, their relative magnitudes, and how they exert their greatest effects in different regions of the flow. We compare calculations based on various analytical and computational models with each other and with relevant experimental data. We discuss practical applications of these studies.
TL;DR: Iron is an essential nutrient for nearly all organisms but presents problems of toxicity, poor solubility and low availability, which are alleviated through the use of iron-storage proteins, which comprise bacterioferritin and ferritin.
Abstract: Iron is an essential nutrient for nearly all organisms but presents problems of toxicity, poor solubility and low availability. These problems are alleviated through the use of iron-storage proteins. Bacteria possess two types of iron-storage protein, the haem-containing bacterioferritins and the haem-free ferritins. These proteins are widespread in bacteria, with at least 39 examples known so far in eubacteria and archaebacteria. The bacterioferritins and ferritins are distantly related but retain similar structural and functional properties. Both are composed of 24 identical or similar subunits (approximately 19 kDa) that form a roughly spherical protein (approximately 450 kDa, approximately 120 A diameter) containing a large hollow centre (approximately 80 A diameter). The hollow centre acts as an iron-storage cavity with the capacity to accommodate at least 2000 iron atoms in the form of a ferric-hydroxyphosphate core. Each subunit contains a four-helix bundle which carries the active site or ferroxidase centre of the protein. The ferroxidase centres endow ferrous-iron-oxidizing activity and are able to form a di-iron species that is an intermediate in the iron uptake, oxidation and core formation process. Bacterioferritins contain up to 12 protoporphyrin IX haem groups located at the two-fold interfaces between pairs of two-fold related subunits. The role of the haem is unknown, although it may be involved in mediating iron-core reduction and iron release. Some bacterioferritins are composed of two subunit types, one conferring haem-binding ability (alpha) and the other (beta) bestowing ferroxidase activity. Bacterioferritin genes are often adjacent to genes encoding a small [2Fe-2S]-ferredoxin (bacterioferritin-associated ferredoxin or Bfd). Bfd may directly interact with bacterioferritin and could be involved in releasing iron from (or delivering iron to) bacterioferritin or other iron complexes. Some bacteria contain two bacterioferritin subunits, or two ferritin subunits, that in most cases co-assemble. Others possess both a bacterioferritin and a ferritin, while some appear to lack any type of iron-storage protein. The reason for these differences is not understood. Studies on ferritin mutants have shown that ferritin enhances growth during iron starvation and is also involved in iron accumulation in the stationary phase of growth. The ferritin of Campylobacter jejuni is involved in redox stress resistance, although this does not appear to be the case for Escherichia coli ferritin (FtnA). No phenotype has been determined for E. coli bacterioferritin mutants and the precise role of bacterioferritin in E. coli remains uncertain.
TL;DR: The expression of HrPax-258 gene is reported: an ascidian homologue of vertebrate Pax-2, Pax-5 and Pax-8 genes, and it is suggested that this subfamily of Pax genes has conserved roles in regional specification of the brain.
Abstract: Ascidians and vertebrates belong to the Phylum Chordata and both have dorsal tubular central nervous systems. The structure of the ascidian neural tube is extremely simple, containing less than 400 cells, among which less than 100 cells are neurons. Recent studies suggest that, despite its simple organization, the mechanisms patterning the ascidian neural tube are similar to those of the more complex vertebrate brain. Identification of homologous regions between vertebrate and ascidian nervous systems, however, remains to be resolved. Here we report the expression of HrPax-258 gene: an ascidian homologue of vertebrate Pax-2, Pax-5 and Pax-8 genes. Molecular phylogenetic analyses indicate that HrPax-258 is descendant from a single precursor gene that gave rise to the three vertebrate genes. The expression pattern of HrPax-258 suggests that this subfamily of Pax genes has conserved roles in regional specification of the brain. Comparison with expression of ascidian Otx (Hroth) and a Hox gene (HrHox1) by double-staining in situ hybridizations indicate that the ascidian brain region can be subdivided into three regions; the anterior region marked by Hroth probably homologous to the vertebrate forebrain and midbrain, the middle region marked by HrPax-258 probably homologous to the vertebrate anterior hindbrain (and maybe also midbrain) and the posterior region marked by Hox genes which is homologous to the vertebrate hindbrain and spinal cord. Later expression of HrPax-258 in atrial primordia implies that basal chordates such as ascidians have already acquired a sensory organ that develops from epidermal thickenings (placodes) and expresses HrPax-258; we suggest it is homologous to the vertebrate ear. Therefore, placodes are not likely to be a newly acquired feature in vertebrates, but may have already been possessed by the earliest chordates.
TL;DR: Gilbert et al. as discussed by the authors identify some of the issues associated with the role of models in scientific explanations and identify some characteristics of explanations sought and provided for and by scientists, science curricula, teachers of science and students of science.
Abstract: This is the first of two papers which seeks to identify some of the issues associated with the role of models in scientific explanations. Starting from a broad definition, a typology of explanations is developed and the notion of ‘appropriateness’ in scientific explanations is explored. Some characteristics of explanations sought and provided for and by scientists, science curricula, teachers of science and students of science are identified. Finally, the nature of models and their contribution to explanations are explored. In Part 2 (Gilbert et al. 1998), the understandings generated from provided explanations are discussed, together with an appraisal of those explanations which are not commonly sought or attempted.
TL;DR: It is suggested that a single microsatellite usually does not provide enough information for useful inferences, but that several completely linked microsatellites can be informative about some aspects of genealogical history and evolutionary processes.
Abstract: Ease and accuracy of typing, together with high levels of polymorphism and widespread distribution in the genome, make microsatellite (or short tandem repeat) loci an attractive potential source of information about both population histories and evolutionary processes. However, microsatellite data are difficult to interpret, in particular because of the frequency of back-mutations. Stochastic models for the underlying genetic processes can be specified, but in the past they have been too complicated for direct analysis. Recent developments in stochastic simulation methodology now allow direct inference about both historical events, such as genealogical coalescence times, and evolutionary parameters, such as mutation rates. A feature of the Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) algorithm that we propose here is that the likelihood computations are simplified by treating the (unknown) ancestral allelic states as auxiliary parameters. We illustrate the algorithm by analyzing microsatellite samples simulated under the model. Our results suggest that a single microsatellite usually does not provide enough information for useful inferences, but that several completely linked microsatellites can be informative about some aspects of genealogical history and evolutionary processes. We also reanalyze data from a previously published human Y chromosome microsatellite study, finding evidence for an effective population size for human Y chromosomes in the low thousands and a recent time since their most recent common ancestor: the 95% interval runs from approximately 15, 000 to 130,000 years, with most likely values around 30,000 years.
TL;DR: In this article, it was shown that pressure was shown to lead to the formation of structures that were stabilised by hydrogen bonds and texture profile analysis (TPA) showed that the structures produced by heat and pressure treatments had very different textures.
TL;DR: APSIM-wheat as discussed by the authors is a crop system simulation model, consisting of modules that incorporate aspects of soil water, nitrogen (N), residues, and crop development, which is used to simulate above-and belowground growth, grain yield, water and N uptake, and soil water and soil N in wheat crops in Western Australia.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present self-consistent numerical considerations of the problem of migrating giant planets and show that there is a wide range of possible fates for Jupiter-mass planets for both final heliocentric distance and final mass.
Abstract: Giant planets in circumstellar disks can migrate inward from their initial (formation) positions. Radial migration is caused by inward torques between the planet and the disk, by outward torques between the planet and the spinning star, and by outward torques due to Roche lobe overflow and consequent mass loss from the planet. We present self-consistent numerical considerations of the problem of migrating giant planets. Summing torques on planets for various physical parameters, we find that Jupiter-mass planets can stably arrive and survive at small heliocentric distances, thus reproducing observed properties of some of the recently discovered extrasolar planets. Inward migration timescales can be approximately equal to or less than disk lifetimes and star spindown timescales. Therefore, the range of fates of massive planets is broad and generally comprises three classes: (I) planets that migrate inward too rapidly and lose all their mass; (II) planets that migrate inward, lose some but not all of their mass, and survive in very small orbits; and (III) planets that do not lose any mass. Some planets in class III do not migrate very far from their formation locations. Our results show that there is a wide range of possible fates for Jupiter-mass planets for both final heliocentric distance and final mass.
TL;DR: The findings indicate a persistent effect of postnatal depression on child adjustment and highlight the need for resources devoted to supporting mothers of young children and particularly routine screening and treatment for postnatal mood disorder.
Abstract: BACKGROUND Little is known of the behavioural adjustment of children of postnatally depressed mothers. Previous studies have relied on maternal reports, and have produced inconsistent findings.
METHOD In a prospective, longitudinal study of the five-year-old children of a community sample of postnatally depressed and well women, evidence was collected concerning the children's adjustment in the context of school, teachers being asked to complete questionnaires after the children had finished their first term.
RESULTS Family social class and the child's gender had the most pervasive influences on adjustment. However, both postnatal and recent maternal depression were associated with significantly raised levels of child disturbance, particularly among boys and those from lower social class families.
CONCLUSIONS The findings indicate a persistent effect of postnatal depression on child adjustment. They highlight the need for resources devoted to supporting mothers of young children and particularly routine screening and treatment for postnatal mood disorder.
TL;DR: Direct imaging by high resolution transmission electron microscopy of Zn2Cd5-metallothionein, cytochromes c, c, and β-lactamase 1 shows the carbon nanotube appears to act as a benign host in its ability to encapsulate protein molecules within an environment which offers some protection.
TL;DR: In this article, the effect of background noise in open-plan office environments was investigated. And the results showed that both speech and office noise can disrupt performance on memory for prose and mental arithmetic tasks, and the effect is independent of the meaning of irrelevant speech.
Abstract: Three experiments examine what is widely reported to be one of the most common forms of interference in open-plan office environments—the effect of background noise. Experiment 1 investigates whether office noise (with or without speech) is disruptive to two office-related tasks: memory for prose and mental arithmetic. The results show that whereas office noise with speech disrupts performance on both tasks, office noise without speech disrupts performance on the mental arithmetic task only. Experiment 2 investigates the memory for prose task more closely by varying the duration and the meaning of the background noise. Experiment 3 examines whether the meaning of speech is important to the disruption of a mental arithmetic task. The results show that both speech and office noise can disrupt performance on memory for prose and mental arithmetic tasks, and the effect is independent of the meaning of the irrelevant speech. These results are presented and interpreted in light of current research and theories regarding the effect of background noise.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors compared industrial districts as effective organization modes and some of their claimed distinctive features, such as "extended division of labour" and "co-operation" as a rule governing inter-firm relationships.
Abstract: This paper discusses the nature of industrial districts as effective organization modes and some of their claimed distinctive features, such as 'extended division of labour' and 'co-operation' as a rule governing inter-firm relationships. Over a period of 40 years, 24 local productive systems of SMEs in Italy are compared with respect to both economic and social characteristics. The 'canonical' features of the industrial district were only found in a few local systems and at certain periods of time. The model of the industrial district is not always associated with superior performance, and other typologies of local systems may show even better results.The comparison also highlights different models of labour organization combined with different sets of socio-economic factors and apparently conflicting rules governing inter-firm relationships. Trust, 'confidence', co-operation, price, power and conflict as well as deceit may co-exist in the same typology of local system. These rules flow into one another ...
TL;DR: The role of perceived location is explored by recording the walking trajectories of people wearing displacing prism glasses to suggest that perceived location, rather than optic or retinal flow, is the predominant cue that guides locomotion on foot.
TL;DR: The data confirm anecdotal reports of the orexigenic actions of exogenous cannabinoids and suggest a critical role for endogenous cannabinoid systems in the regulation of appetite.
TL;DR: In this article, a regionalisation methodology has been applied to catchments in England and Wales enabling estimation of daily flows for any catchment in the region for which physical data and records of rainfall and temperature are available.
TL;DR: The status of resistance to organophosphate, carbamate, cyclodiene and pyrethroid insecticides in the heliothine Lepidoptera is reviewed and resistance in the tobacco budworm is reviewed.
Abstract: The status of resistance to organophosphate, carbamate, cyclodiene and pyrethroid insecticides in the heliothine Lepidoptera is reviewed. In particular, resistance in the tobacco budworm, Heliothis...