Showing papers by "University of York published in 2002"
TL;DR: BRAF somatic missense mutations in 66% of malignant melanomas and at lower frequency in a wide range of human cancers, with a single substitution (V599E) accounting for 80%.
Abstract: Cancers arise owing to the accumulation of mutations in critical genes that alter normal programmes of cell proliferation, differentiation and death. As the first stage of a systematic genome-wide screen for these genes, we have prioritized for analysis signalling pathways in which at least one gene is mutated in human cancer. The RAS RAF MEK ERK MAP kinase pathway mediates cellular responses to growth signals. RAS is mutated to an oncogenic form in about 15% of human cancer. The three RAF genes code for cytoplasmic serine/threonine kinases that are regulated by binding RAS. Here we report BRAF somatic missense mutations in 66% of malignant melanomas and at lower frequency in a wide range of human cancers. All mutations are within the kinase domain, with a single substitution (V599E) accounting for 80%. Mutated BRAF proteins have elevated kinase activity and are transforming in NIH3T3 cells. Furthermore, RAS function is not required for the growth of cancer cell lines with the V599E mutation. As BRAF is a serine/threonine kinase that is commonly activated by somatic point mutation in human cancer, it may provide new therapeutic opportunities in malignant melanoma.
9,785 citations
TL;DR: The basics of the suject are looked at, a brief review of the theory is given, examining the strengths and weaknesses of its implementation, and some of the ways simulators approach problems are illustrated through a small case study.
Abstract: First-principles simulation, meaning density-functional theory calculations with plane waves and pseudopotentials, has become a prized technique in condensed-matter theory. Here I look at the basics of the suject, give a brief review of the theory, examining the strengths and weaknesses of its implementation, and illustrating some of the ways simulators approach problems through a small case study. I also discuss why and how modern software design methods have been used in writing a completely new modular version of the CASTEP code.
9,350 citations
TL;DR: Efron and Tibshirani as discussed by the authors used bootstrap tests to assess mediation, finding that the sampling distribution of the mediated effect is skewed away from 0, and they argued that R. M. Kenny's (1986) recommendation of first testing the X --> Y association for statistical significance should not be a requirement when there is a priori belief that the effect size is small or suppression is a possibility.
Abstract: Mediation is said to occur when a causal effect of some variable X on an outcome Y is explained by some intervening variable M. The authors recommend that with small to moderate samples, bootstrap methods (B. Efron & R. Tibshirani, 1993) be used to assess mediation. Bootstrap tests are powerful because they detect that the sampling distribution of the mediated effect is skewed away from 0. They argue that R. M. Baron and D. A. Kenny's (1986) recommendation of first testing the X --> Y association for statistical significance should not be a requirement when there is a priori belief that the effect size is small or suppression is a possibility. Empirical examples and computer setups for bootstrap analyses are provided.
8,940 citations
TL;DR: This article found that African Americans, Native Americans, and many Latino groups perform lower than their tested skills would predict in difficult math classes yet at their predicted levels in other classes that they examined such as English or, as they later found, in entry-level math classes.
Abstract: Our research on stereotype threat began with a practical question: Do social psychological processes play a significant role in the academic underperformance of certain minority groups, and if so, what is the nature of those processes? In our search for answers, we soon came upon an intriguing finding: Women at the University of Michigan seemed to perform lower than their tested skills would predict in difficult math classes yet at their predicted levels in other classes that we examined such as English or, as we later found, in entry-level math classes. By that time we had been long aware of what is known in the standardized testing literature as the \"underperformance phenomenon\": At each level of academic skill as measured by prior tests, such as the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT), and grades, a group of students sharing a given social identity gets lower subsequent grades than other students. Underperformance such as this characterizes the school and college performance of a number of American minority groups--African Americans, Native Americans, and many Latino groups (e.g., Bowen & Bok, 1998; Jensen, 1980; Ramist, Lewis, & McCamley-Jenkins, 1994). And this fact has a rather startling implication: Their poorer performance in school is not due entirely to their lack of skills or preparation. The underperformance phenomenon documents lower performance by these groups at each level of skill that is, when skill and preparation as measured by tests are essentially held constant. Clearly, then, something beyond weaker skills and preparation undermines the school performance of these groups.
1,890 citations
TL;DR: Coral reefs are the most biologically diverse of shallow water marine ecosystems but are being degraded worldwide by human activities and climate warming, and conservation efforts targeted toward them could help avert the loss of tropical reef biodiversity.
Abstract: Coral reefs are the most biologically diverse of shallow water marine ecosystems but are being degraded worldwide by human activities and climate warming. Analyses of the geographic ranges of 3235 species of reef fish, corals, snails, and lobsters revealed that between 7.2% and 53.6% of each taxon have highly restricted ranges, rendering them vulnerable to extinction. Restricted-range species are clustered into centers of endemism, like those described for terrestrial taxa. The 10 richest centers of endemism cover 15.8% of the world's coral reefs (0.012% of the oceans) but include between 44.8 and 54.2% of the restricted-range species. Many occur in regions where reefs are being severely affected by people, potentially leading to numerous extinctions. Threatened centers of endemism are major biodiversity hotspots, and conservation efforts targeted toward them could help avert the loss of tropical reef biodiversity.
1,491 citations
TL;DR: The average first flowering date of 385 British plant species has advanced by 4.5 days during the past decade compared with the previous four decades, revealing the strongest biological signal yet of climatic change.
Abstract: The average first flowering date of 385 British plant species has advanced by 4.5 days during the past decade compared with the previous four decades: 16% of species flowered significantly earlier in the 1990s than previously, with an average advancement of 15 days in a decade. Ten species (3%) flowered significantly later in the 1990s than previously. These data reveal the strongest biological signal yet of climatic change. Flowering is especially sensitive to the temperature in the previous month, and spring-flowering species are most responsive. However, large interspecific differences in this response will affect both the structure of plant communities and gene flow between species as climate warms. Annuals are more likely to flower early than congeneric perennials, and insect-pollinated species more than wind-pollinated ones.
1,310 citations
Book•
17 Apr 2002TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss the uses of the story, the legal and the literary, and the creation of self in the form of a story, and so why narrative.
Abstract: Preface 1. The Uses of the Story 2. The Legal and the Literary 3. The Narrative Creation of Self 4. So Why Narrative? Notes Index
1,180 citations
TL;DR: Calcium Signals are identified as a central Paradigm in Stimulus–Response Coupling and are normally composed of elements that include calcium and Na6(SO4)2, Na2SO4, and Na2CO3.
Abstract: ### Calcium Signals: A Central Paradigm in Stimulus–Response Coupling
Cells must respond to an array of environmental and developmental cues. The signaling networks that have evolved to generate appropriate cellular responses are varied and are normally composed of elements that include a
1,156 citations
TL;DR: An interpersonal social-cognitive theory of the self and personality, the relational self, is proposed, in which knowledge about the self is linked with knowledge about significant others, and each linkage embodies a self-other relationship.
Abstract: The authors propose an interpersonal social– cognitive theory of the self and personality, the relational self, in which knowledge about the self is linked with knowledge about significant others, and each linkage embodies a self– other relationship. Mental representations of significant others are activated and used in interpersonal encounters in the social– cognitive phenomenon of transference (S. M. Andersen & N. S. Glassman, 1996), and this evokes the relational self. Variability in relational selves depends on interpersonal contextual cues, whereas stability derives from the chronic accessibility of significant-other representations. Relational selves function in if–then terms (W. Mischel & Y. Shoda, 1995), in which ifs are situations triggering transference, and thens are relational selves. An individual’s repertoire of relational selves is a source of interpersonal patterns involving affect, motivation, self-evaluation, and self-regulation. The nature of the self has long perplexed and intrigued scholars across a broad spectrum of academic disciplines. In psychology alone, well over a century of inquiry has translated into a virtual explosion of theory and research in recent decades, especially in social psychology, all aiming to chart the contours of the self. Sharing this aim, we propose an interpersonal social– cognitive theory of the self that draws on theory and research in social cognition, personality psychology, and clinical psychology. Our central argument is that the self is relational— or even entangled— with significant others and that this has implications for selfdefinition, self-evaluation, self-regulation, and, most broadly, for personality functioning, expressed in relation to others. The theory clearly subscribes to the long-standing view that the self is fundamentally interpersonal (e.g., James, 1890). Indeed, we maintain that an individual’s overall repertoire of relational selves, stemming from all his or her relationships, is a major source of the interpersonal patterns that the individual enacts and experiences in the course of everyday interpersonal life—whether at work, at play, or in therapy. The proposed theory focuses on the ways in which the self is related to specific other individuals—namely, the significant oth
766 citations
TL;DR: Rec recessive mutations at two loci in Arabidopsis, MAX1 and MAX2, are described that affect the selective repression of axillary shoots and suggest that selective repressed growth involves ubiquitin-mediated degradation of as yet unidentified proteins that activate axillary growth.
Abstract: Plant shoots elaborate their adult form by selective control over the growth of both their primary shoot apical meristem and their axillary shoot meristems. We describe recessive mutations at two loci in Arabidopsis, MAX1 and MAX2, that affect the selective repression of axillary shoots. All the first order (but not higher order) axillary shoots initiated by mutant plants remain active, resulting in bushier shoots than those of wild type. In vegetative plants where axillary shoots develop in a basal to apical sequence, the mutations do not clearly alter node distance, from the shoot apex, at which axillary shoot meristems initiate but shorten the distance at which the first axillary leaf primordium is produced by the axillary shoot meristem. A small number of mutant axillary shoot meristems is enlarged and, later in development, a low proportion of mutant lateral shoots is fasciated. Together, this suggests that MAX1 and MAX2 do not control the timing of axillary meristem initiation but repress primordia formation by the axillary meristem. In addition to shoot branching, mutations at both loci affect leaf shape. The mutations at MAX2 cause increased hypocotyl and petiole elongation in light-grown seedlings. Positional cloning identifies MAX2 as a member of the F-box leucine-rich repeat family of proteins. MAX2 is identical to ORE9, a proposed regulator of leaf senescence (Woo, H. R., Chung, K. M., Park, J.-H., Oh, S. A., Ahn, T., Hong, S. H., Jang, S. K. and Nam, H. G. (2001) Plant Cell 13, 1779-1790). Our results suggest that selective repression of axillary shoots involves ubiquitinmediated degradation of as yet unidentified proteins that activate axillary growth.
656 citations
TL;DR: This paper proposed a process model whereby experiences of rejection based on membership in a devalued group can lead people to anxiously expect, readily perceive, and intensely react to status-based rejection.
Abstract: The authors proposed a process model whereby experiences of rejection based on membership in a devalued group can lead people to anxiously expect, readily perceive, and intensely react to status-based rejection. To test the model, the authors focused on race-based rejection sensitivity (RS-race) among African Americans. Following the development and validation of the RS-Race Questionnaire (Studies 1 and 2), the authors tested the utility of the model for understanding African American students' experiences at a predominantly White university (Study 3). Students high in RS-race experienced greater discomfort during the college transition, less trust in the university, and relative declines in grades over a 2- to 3-year period. Positive race-related experiences, however, increased feelings of belonging at the institution among students high in RS-race.
TL;DR: Solid acids and especially those based on micelle-templated silicas and other mesoporous high surface area support materials are beginning to play a significant role in the greening of fine and specialty chemicals manufacturing processes.
Abstract: Solid acids and especially those based on micelle-templated silicas and other mesoporous high surface area support materials are beginning to play a significant role in the greening of fine and speciality chemicals manufacturing processes. A wide range of important organic reactions can be efficiently catalyzed by these materials, which can be designed to provide different types of acidity as well as high degrees of reaction selectivity. The solid acids generally have high turnover numbers and can be easily separated from the organic components. The combination of this chemistry with innovative reaction engineering offers exciting opportunities for innovative green chemical manufacturing in the future.
TL;DR: It is demonstrated how vignettes can be very useful research tools yielding valuable data when studying people's attitudes, perceptions and beliefs in social and nursing research.
Abstract: The application of vignettes in social and nursing research
Aim. The aim of this paper is to review the potential for, and the limitations of, the use of vignettes in research that seeks an understanding of people's attitudes, perceptions and beliefs, particularly with regard to sensitive subjects such as health care.
Background. Vignettes, in the form of text or pictures presented to research participants to prompt responses to interview questions, are widely used throughout the social sciences although their use in nursing research is less developed.
Review focus. This review paper begins by addressing the differences between vignettes and real life processes. The following sections explore some of the practical advantages and pitfalls of using vignettes in social and nursing research.
Conclusion. The paper demonstrates how vignettes can be very useful research tools yielding valuable data when studying people's attitudes, perceptions and beliefs in social and nursing research.
TL;DR: The auxin-resistant mutants axrl, axr4 and aux1 all showed the wild-type lateral root elongation responses to a nitrate-rich patch, suggesting that auxin is not required for this response.
Abstract: Plant root systems can respond to nutrient availability and distribution by changing the three-dimensional deployment of their roots: their root system architecture (RSA). We have compared RSA in homogeneous and heterogeneous nitrate and phosphate supply in Arabidopsis. Changes in nitrate and phosphate availability were found to have contrasting effects on primary root length and lateral root density, but similar effects on lateral root length. Relative to shoot dry weight (DW), primary root length decreased with increasing nitrate availability, while it increased with increasing phosphate supply. Lateral root density remained constant across a range of nitrate supplies, but decreased with increasing phosphate supply. In contrast, lateral root elongation was suppressed both by high nitrate and high phosphate supplies. Local supplies of high nitrate or phosphate in a patch also had different effects. Primary root growth was not affected by a high nitrate patch, but growth through a high phosphate patch reduced primary root growth after the root left the patch. A high nitrate patch induced an increase in lateral root density in the patch, whereas lateral root density was unaffected by a high phosphate patch. However, both phosphate- and nitrate-rich patches induced lateral root elongation in the patch and suppressed it outside the patch. This co-ordinated response of lateral roots also occurs in soil-grown plants exposed to a nutrient-rich patch. The auxin-resistant mutants axr1, axr4 and aux1 all showed the wild-type lateral root elongation responses to a nitrate-rich patch, suggesting that auxin is not required for this response.
TL;DR: The essence of cognitive approaches--emphasis on motivational consequences of gender concepts; the active, self-initiated view of development; and focus on developmental patterns-is highlighted and contrasted with social-cognitive views.
Abstract: How individuals develop a “gendered” self and gender-typed differentiation has intrigued researchers of human behavior for as long as social development has been a field of empirical study. Initially, observations of clear gender typing in children as young as 5 years old led researchers to examine how socialization processes in the home might contribute to this early acquisition of gender-linked behavior (e.g., Sears, Maccoby, & Levin, 1957). In 1966, several important theories of gender development, including Kohlberg’s cognitive– developmental approach and Mischel’s social learning approach, were outlined in Maccoby’s book on the development of sex differences. In the mid-1970s, a groundbreaking book by Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) broadened the discussion about the etiology of sex differences and gender typing and questioned the significance of socialization processes, thereby invigorating the field and generating considerable controversy. In the 1980s, Huston (1983, 1985) called for researchers to develop a more integrative, comprehensive approach to the study of gender development. This integration was to include consideration of the many facets of gender that needed investigation, such as concepts, identity, preferences, and behavior, as well as a wide variety of factors that influence the development of these facets, including biology, cognitions, and social influences. This idea resonated with gender researchers and has been a driving force in the field ever since, leading to an expansion of theoretical approaches and the inclusion of multiple measures in empirical studies. Recently, Bussey and Bandura (1999) presented a social– cognitive theory (SCT) of gender development and differentiation. This theory represents a particular view of how gender-related behavior is acquired and maintained, based on contemporary social learning theory (Bandura, 1986). Because the theory has now integrated cognitive constructs and makes reference to biological underpinnings and sociostructural factors, Bussey and Bandura described their theory as comprehensive and integrative, consistent with Huston’s (1983) proposal, and implied that other theories are invalid and/or no longer necessary. In particular, they were highly critical of previous cognitive approaches to early gender development and proposed that children’s cognitive structures, namely gender identity and stereotype knowledge, play a minor role relative to social forces. One goal of the present article is to rebut these claims. A second goal is to present a contemporary account of the role of cognitive structures in early gender development. We begin with a brief history of the debate between cognitive and social learning theories of gender development. We then examine the contributions and limitations of Bussey and Bandura’s (1999) recent account of gender development. Next, we review the current status of what have historically been the two major cognitive accounts of gender development: cognitive– developmental theory and gender schema theory. We then evaluate the empirical evidence relevant to the major controversies surrounding these views. Given the centrality of early gender development to the cognitive perspective, we then introduce the latest evidence on how infants and toddlers develop the abilities to discriminate the sexes and learn the attributes correlated with sex. Finally, we provide an overview of the essence of cognitive approaches and point to directions for future research.
TL;DR: Embryological and genetic studies of mouse, bird, zebrafish, and frog embryos are providing new insights into the regulatory functions of the myogenic regulatory factors, MyoD, Myf5, Myogenin, and MRF4, and the transcriptional and signaling mechanisms that control their expression during the specification and differentiation of muscle progenitors.
Abstract: Embryological and genetic studies of mouse, bird, zebrafish, and frog embryos are providing new insights into the regulatory functions of the myogenic regulatory factors, MyoD, Myf5, Myogenin, and MRF4, and the transcriptional and signaling mechanisms that control their expression during the specification and differentiation of muscle progenitors. Myf5 and MyoD genes have genetically redundant, but developmentally distinct regulatory functions in the specification and the differentiation of somite and head muscle progenitor lineages. Myogenin and MRF4 have later functions in muscle differentiation, and Pax and Hox genes coordinate the migration and specification of somite progenitors at sites of hypaxial and limb muscle formation in the embryo body. Transcription enhancers that control Myf5 and MyoD activation in muscle progenitors and maintain their expression during muscle differentiation have been identified by transgenic analysis. In epaxial, hypaxial, limb, and head muscle progenitors, Myf5 is controlled by lineage-specific transcription enhancers, providing evidence that multiple mechanisms control progenitor specification at different sites of myogenesis in the embryo. Developmental signaling ligands and their signal transduction effectors function both interactively and independently to control Myf5 and MyoD activation in muscle progenitor lineages, likely through direct regulation of their transcription enhancers. Future investigations of the signaling and transcriptional mechanisms that control Myf5 and MyoD in the muscle progenitor lineages of different vertebrate embryos can be expected to provide a detailed understanding of the developmental and evolutionary mechanisms for anatomical muscles formation in vertebrates. This knowledge will be a foundation for development of stem cell therapies to repair diseased and damaged muscles.
TL;DR: It is argued that an economic solution to the problem of invasive species has two components: one is to use incentives to change human behavior so as to enhance protection against the introduction, establishment, and spread of invasive behavior, and the other is to develop institutions that support the weakest members of global society.
Abstract: We postulate that the causes of the problem of invasive alien species are primarily economic and, as such, require economic solutions. Invasive alien species are of increasing concern for four reasons. First, introductions are increasing sharply, while mechanisms for excluding or eradicating alien species have been either withdrawn or progressively weakened. Both trends are due to the liberalization of and increase in international travel and trade, an economic phenomenon. Second, the costs of invasions are rising rapidly due partly to increasing human population density, and partly to increasing intensity of production in genetically impoverished agricultural systems. Third, biological invasions are associated with a high degree of uncertainty both because they involve novel interactions, and because invasion risks are endogenous. Actual risks depend on how people react to the possibility of invasions. Fourth, the exclusion and control of invasive species is a "weakest-link" public good. This places the well-being of society in the hands of the least effective provider. We argue that an economic solution to the problem of invasive species has two components. One is to use incentives to change human behavior so as to enhance protection against the introduction, establishment, and spread of invasive behavior. The other is to develop institutions that support the weakest members of global society, converting a "weakest-link" to a "best-shot" public good.
TL;DR: Effective support offered by professionals and lay people together was specific to breastfeeding and was offered to women who had decided to breastfeed, but its effects on exclusive breastfeeding were less clear.
Abstract: Background: There is extensive evidence of the benefits of breastfeeding for infants and mothers. In 2003, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended infants be fed exclusively on breast milk until six months of age. However, breastfeeding rates in many developed countries continue to be resistant to change. Objectives: To assess the effectiveness of support for breastfeeding mothers. Search strategy: We searched the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group's Trials Register (January 2006), MEDLINE (1966 to November 2005), EMBASE (1974 to November 2005) and MIDIRS (1991 to September 2005). We updated the search of the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group's Trials Register on 27 July 2009 and added the results to the awaiting classification section. Selection criteria: Randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials comparing extra support for breastfeeding mothers with usual maternity care. Data collection and analysis: Two authors independently assessed trial quality and extracted data. Main results: We have included 34 trials (29,385 mother-infant pairs) from 14 countries. All forms of extra support analysed together showed an increase in duration of 'any breastfeeding' (includes partial and exclusive breastfeeding) (relative risk (RR) for stopping any breastfeeding before six months 0.91, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.86 to 0.96). All forms of extra support together had a larger effect on duration of exclusive breastfeeding than on any breastfeeding (RR 0.81, 95% CI 0.74 to 0.89). Lay and professional support together extended duration of any breastfeeding significantly (RR before 4-6 weeks 0.65, 95% 0.51 to 0.82; RR before 2 months 0.74, 95% CI 0.66 to 0.83). Exclusive breastfeeding was significantly prolonged with use of WHO/UNICEF training (RR 0.69, 95% CI 0.52 to 0.91). Maternal satisfaction was poorly reported. Authors' conclusions: Additional professional support was effective in prolonging any breastfeeding, but its effects on exclusive breastfeeding were less clear. WHO/UNICEF training courses appeared to be effective for professional training. Additional lay support was effective in prolonging exclusive breastfeeding, while its effects on duration of any breastfeeding were uncertain. Effective support offered by professionals and lay people together was specific to breastfeeding and was offered to women who had decided to breastfeed. Further trials are required to assess the effectiveness (including cost-effectiveness) of both lay and professional support in different settings, particularly those with low rates of breastfeeding initiation, and for women who wish to breastfeed for longer than three months. Trials should consider timing and delivery of support interventions and relative effectiveness of intervention components, and should report women's views. Research into appropriate training for supporters (whether lay or professional) of breastfeeding mothers is also needed. [Note: The 79 citations in the awaiting classification section of the review may alter the conclusions of the review once assessed.] Copyright © 2009 The Cochrane Collaboration. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: The pattern of success and failure of infants' spontaneous representations of more and less supports the hypothesis that they relied on object-file representations, comparing mental models via total volume or surface area rather than via one-to-one correspondence between object files.
Abstract: A new choice task was used to explore infants' spontaneous representations of more and less. Ten- and 12-month-old infants saw crackers placed sequentially into two containers, then were allowed to crawl and obtain the crackers from the container they chose. Infants chose the larger quantity with comparisons of 1 versus 2 and 2 versus 3, but failed with comparisons of 3 versus 4, 2 versus 4, and 3 versus 6. Success with visible arrays ruled out a motivational explanation for failure in the occluded 3-versus-6 condition. Control tasks ruled out the possibility that presentation duration guided choice, and showed that presentation complexity was not responsible for the failure with larger numbers. When crackers were different sizes, total surface area or volume determined choice. The infants 'pattern of success and failure supports the hypothesis that they relied on object-file representations, comparing mental models via total volume or surface area rather than via one-to-one correspondence between objectfiles.
TL;DR: The consumer research domain appears ideal for the necessary next wave of social cognition research: the assessment of how much of a role nonconscious influences play in real life in decisions and behavior that are of real consequence to the individual.
Abstract: Consumer research has largely missed out on two key developments in social cognition research: the growing evidence that much of social judgment and behavior occur without conscious awareness or intent and the substantial moderating influence of social‐ and self‐related goal pursuits on basic cognitive and reasoning processes. This evidence is described and its implications are drawn for nonconscious—including subliminal—influences on consumer behavior. The consumer research domain appears ideal for the necessary next wave of this research: the assessment of how much of a role nonconscious influences play in real life in decisions and behavior that are of real consequence to the individual.
University of New Hampshire1, University of Washington2, University of California, Davis3, University of California, Santa Cruz4, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation5, Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research6, University of York7, The Nature Conservancy8, United States Forest Service9
TL;DR: In this article, a directed approach for conservation research to aid in prioritizing non-indigenous species for intervention by resource managers is proposed, highlighting the roles of risk assess- ment and research in improving control efforts.
Abstract: Management of nonindigenous species is a crucial aspect of maintaining native biodiversity and normal ecosystem functions. We attempt to guide researchers in developing projects that will be of use to con- servation practitioners, tangibly improving applied conservation measures. We advocate a directed approach for conservation research to aid in prioritizing nonindigenous species for intervention by resource managers. This approach includes outlining what needs to be known to make such relative judgments about the impacts of nonindigenous species and the most promising methods by which to obtain such information. We also ad- dress active measures that should be taken once priorities have been set, highlighting the roles of risk assess- ment and research in improving control efforts. Ultimately, a better match between research and practical conservation needs should result in more effective reduction of the effects of nonindigenous species on native species.
TL;DR: The World Bank, Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. as discussed by the authors The World Bank's Center for Applied Biodiversity Science, Conservation International, Washington DC, 20037, United States.
Abstract: *Center for Applied Biodiversity Science, Conservation International, Washington, D.C, 20037, U.S.A.†Climate Change Research Group, Ecology and Conservation, National Botanical Institute, Cape Town, South Africa‡The World Bank, Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.§Botany Department, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa**Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science and Liberal Arts, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne,FL 32901–6975, U.S.A.††Environment Department, University of York, York, Y010 5DD, United Kingdom‡‡Adaptation and Impacts Research Group, Environment Canada at the Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada§§Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, United Kingdom
TL;DR: An analytic framework is presented that separates the issue of whether a technology should be adopted on the basis of existing evidence from whether more research should be demanded to support future decisions and is shown to apply to the assessment of heath-care technologies.
TL;DR: Most northerly distributed species will have little opportunity to expand northwards and will disappear from areas in the south, resulting in reduced range sizes, but 30 out of 35 study species have failed to track recent climate changes because of lack of suitable habitat, so revised estimates are likely to be more realistic predictions of future butterfly range sizes.
Abstract: We analyse distribution records for 51 British butterfly species to investigate altitudinal and latitudinal responses to twentieth century climate warming. Species with northern and/or montane distributions have disappeared from low elevation sites and colonized sites at higher elevations during the twentieth century, consistent with a climate explanation. We found no evidence for a systematic shift northwards across all species, even though 11 out of 46 southerly distributed species have expanded in the northern part of their distributions. For a subset of 35 species, we model the role of climate in limiting current European distributions and predict potential future distributions for the period 2070-2099. Most northerly distributed species will have little opportunity to expand northwards and will disappear from areas in the south, resulting in reduced range sizes. Southerly distributed species will have the potential to shift northwards, resulting in similar or increased range sizes. However, 30 out of 35 study species have failed to track recent climate changes because of lack of suitable habitat, so we revised our estimates accordingly for these species and predicted 65% and 24% declines in range sizes for northern and southern species, respectively. These revised estimates are likely to be more realistic predictions of future butterfly range sizes.
TL;DR: These experimental mycorrhizas show that root colonization, symbiont compatibility and plant performance vary with each fungus-plant combination, even when the plants and fungi naturally co-exist.
Abstract: 1 The arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi colonizing plants at a woodland site in North Yorkshire (UK) have been characterized from the roots of five plant species (Rubus fruticosus agg. L., Epilobium angustifolium L., Acer pseudoplatanus L., Ajuga reptans L. and Glechoma hederacea L.), and identified using small-subunit rRNA (SSUrRNA) gene amplification and sequencing. 2 Interactions between five plant species from the site and four co-occurring glomalean fungi were investigated in artificial one-to-one AM symbioses. Three of the fungi were isolated from the site; the fourth was a culture genetically similar to a taxon found at the site. Phosphorus uptake and growth responses were compared with non-mycorrhizal controls. 3 Individual fungi colonized each plant with different spatial distribution and intensity. Some did not colonize at all, indicating incompatibility under the conditions used in the experiments. 4 Glomus hoi consistently occupied a large proportion of root systems and outperformed the other fungi, improving P uptake and enhancing the growth of four out of the five plant species. Only G. hoi colonized and increased P uptake in Acer pseudoplatanus, the host plant with which it associates almost exclusively under field conditions. Colonization of all plant species by Scutellospora dipurpurescens was sparse, and beneficial to only one of the host plants (Teucrium scorodonia). Archaeospora trappei and Glomus sp. UY1225 had variable effects on the host plants, conferring a range of P uptake and growth benefits on Lysimachia nummularia and T. scorodonia, increasing P uptake whilst not affecting biomass in Ajuga reptans and Glechoma hederacea, and failing to form mycorrhizas with A. pseudoplatanus. 5 These experimental mycorrhizas show that root colonization, symbiont compatibility and plant performance vary with each fungus-plant combination, even when the plants and fungi naturally co-exist. 6 We provide evidence of physical and functional selectivity in AM. The small number of described AM fungal species (154) has been ascribed to their supposed lack of host specificity, but if the selectivity we have observed is the general rule, then we may predict that many more, probably hard-to-culture glomalean species await discovery, or that members of species as currently perceived may be physiologically or functionally distinct.
TL;DR: Positive expectations predicted high effort and successful performance, but the reverse was true for positive fantasies (experiencing one's thoughts and mental images about a desired future positively).
Abstract: Two forms of thinking about the future are distinguished: expectations versus fantasies. Positive expectations (judging a desired future as likely) predicted high effort and successful performance, but the reverse was true for positive fantasies (experiencing one's thoughts and mental images about a desired future positively). Participants were graduates looking for a job (Study 1), students with a crush on a peer of the opposite sex (Study 2), undergraduates anticipating an exam (Study 3), and patients undergoing hip-replacement surgery (Study 4). Effort and performance were measured weeks or months (up to 2 years) after expectations and fantasies had been assessed. Implications for the self-regulation of effort and performance are discussed.
TL;DR: In normal brain, protein phosphatase‐2A and 2B and, to a lesser extent, 1 are involved in the dephosphorylation of τ, and it is suggested that a defect of proteinosphatase could be the cause of the abnormal hyperph phosphorylated τ in dementia.
Abstract: Microtubule-associated protein tau is abnormally hyperphosphorylated and aggregated in affected neurons of Alzheimer disease brain. This hyperphosphorylated tau can be dephosphorylated at some of the abnormal phosphorylated sites by purified protein phosphatase-1, 2A, and 2B in vitro. In the present study, we have developed an assay to measure protein phosphatase activity toward tau-1 sites (Ser199/Ser202) using the hyperphosphorylated tau isolated from Alzheimer disease brain as substrate. Using this assay, we have identified that in normal brain, protein phosphatase-2A and 2B and, to a lesser extent, 1 are involved in the dephosphorylation of tau. The Km values of dephosphorylation of the hyperphosphorylated tau by protein phosphatase-2A and 2B are similar. The tau phosphatase activity is decreased by approximately 30% in brain of Alzheimer disease patients compared with those of age-matched controls. These findings suggest that a defect of protein phosphatase could be the cause of the abnormal hyperphosphorylation of tau in Alzheimer disease.
TL;DR: The findings suggest that the eye gaze is not unique in automatically triggering orientation, and arrow cues might also trigger automatic orienting.
Abstract: Recent studies (Driver et al., 1999; Friesen & Kingstone, 1998; Langton & Bruce, 1999) have argued that the perception of eye gaze may be unique, as compared with other symbolic cues (e.g., arrows), in being able to automatically trigger attentional orienting. In Experiment 1, 17 participants took part in a visuospatial orienting task to investigate whether arrow cues might also trigger automatic orienting. Two arrow cues were presented for 75 msec to the left and right of a fixation asterisk. After an interval of either 25 or 225 msec, the letter O or X appeared. After both time intervals, mean response times were reliably faster when the arrows pointed toward, rather than away from, the location of the target letter. This occurred despite the fact that the participants were informed that the arrows did not predict where the target would appear. In Experiment 2, the same pattern of data was recorded when several adjustments had been made in an attempt to rule out alternative explanations for the cuing effects. Overall, the findings suggest that the eye gaze is not unique in automatically triggering orienting.
TL;DR: This study reveals clearly that the AM fungal community colonizing T. repens differed from that colonizing A. capillaris, providing evidence for AMfungal host preference and dynamic changes in the AMFungal community through time are revealed.
Abstract: Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are biotrophic symbionts colonizing about two-thirds of land plant species and found in all ecosystems. They are of major importance in plant nutrient supply and their diversity is suggested to be an important determinant of plant community composition. The diversity of the AM fungal community composition in the roots of two plant species (Agrostis capillaris and Trifolium repens) that co-occurred in the same grassland ecosystem was characterized using molecular techniques. We analysed the small subunit (SSU) ribosomal RNA gene amplified from a total root DNA extract using AM fungal-specific primers. A total of 2001 cloned fragments from 47 root samples obtained on four dates were analysed by restriction fragment length polymorphism, and 121 of them were sequenced. The diversity found was high: a total of 24 different phylotypes (groups of phylogenetically related sequences) colonized the roots of the two host species. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrate that 19 of these phylotypes belonged to the Glomaceae, three to the Acaulosporaceae and two to the Gigasporaceae. Our study reveals clearly that the AM fungal community colonizing T. repens differed from that colonizing A. capillaris, providing evidence for AM fungal host preference. In addition, our results reveal dynamic changes in the AM fungal community through time.
TL;DR: Lieberman et al. as mentioned in this paper presented a paper on "Knowledge may give weight, but accomplishments give lustre, and many more people see than weigh." Lord Chesterfield, Letters, May 8, 1750.
Abstract: This chapter was supported by grants from the National Science Foundation (BCS-0074562) and the James S. McDonnell Foundation (JSMF 99-25 CN-QUA.05). We gratefully acknowledge Kevin Kim for technical assistance and Naomi Eisenberger for helpful comments on previous drafts. Correspondence concerning this chapter should be addressed to Matthew Lieberman, Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 900951563; email: lieber@ucla.edu. "Knowledge may give weight, but accomplishments give lustre, and many more people see than weigh." Lord Chesterfield, Letters, May 8, 1750