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Showing papers by "University of York published in 2003"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The concept of working memory proposes that a dedicated system maintains and stores information in the short term, and that this system underlies human thought processes.
Abstract: The concept of working memory proposes that a dedicated system maintains and stores information in the short term, and that this system underlies human thought processes. Current views of working memory involve a central executive and two storage systems: the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad. Although this basic model was first proposed 30 years ago, it has continued to develop and to stimulate research and debate. The model and the most recent results are reviewed in this article.

4,556 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, an evidence-based quality assessment tool called QUADAS was proposed to assess the quality of primary studies of diagnostic accuracy, based on the results of three previously conducted reviews of the diagnostic literature.
Abstract: Background: In the era of evidence based medicine, with systematic reviews as its cornerstone, adequate quality assessment tools should be available. There is currently a lack of a systematically developed and evaluated tool for the assessment of diagnostic accuracy studies. The aim of this project was to combine empirical evidence and expert opinion in a formal consensus method to develop a tool to be used in systematic reviews to assess the quality of primary studies of diagnostic accuracy. Methods: We conducted a Delphi procedure to develop the quality assessment tool by refining an initial list of items. Members of the Delphi panel were experts in the area of diagnostic research. The results of three previously conducted reviews of the diagnostic literature were used to generate a list of potential items for inclusion in the tool and to provide an evidence base upon which to develop the tool. Results: A total of nine experts in the field of diagnostics took part in the Delphi procedure. The Delphi procedure consisted of four rounds, after which agreement was reached on the items to be included in the tool which we have called QUADAS. The initial list of 28 items was reduced to fourteen items in the final tool. Items included covered patient spectrum, reference standard, disease progression bias, verification bias, review bias, clinical review bias, incorporation bias, test execution, study withdrawals, and indeterminate results. The QUADAS tool is presented together with guidelines for scoring each of the items included in the tool. Conclusions: This project has produced an evidence based quality assessment tool to be used in systematic reviews of diagnostic accuracy studies. Further work to determine the usability and validity of the tool continues.

3,468 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The types of research questions that diary methods are best equipped to answer are reviewed, the main designs that can be used, current technology for obtaining diary reports, and appropriate data analysis strategies are reviewed.
Abstract: In diary studies, people provide frequent reports on the events and experiences of their daily lives. These reports capture the particulars of experience in a way that is not possible using traditional designs. We review the types of research questions that diary methods are best equipped to answer, the main designs that can be used, current technology for obtaining diary reports, and appropriate data analysis strategies. Major recent developments include the use of electronic forms of data collection and multilevel models in data analysis. We identify several areas of research opportunities: 1. in technology, combining electronic diary reports with collateral measures such as ambulatory heart rate; 2. in measurement, switching from measures based on between-person differences to those based on within-person changes; and 3. in research questions, using diaries to (a) explain why people differ in variability rather than mean level, (b) study change processes during major events and transitions, and (c) study interpersonal processes using dyadic and group diary methods.

3,258 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm for continuous variables, and a deterministic version of it is used for quantum information processing with continuous variables.
Abstract: Preface. About the Editors. Part I: Quantum Computing. 1. Quantum computing with qubits S.L. Braunstein, A.K. Pati. 2. Quantum computation over continuous variables S. Lloyd, S.L. Braunstein. 3. Error correction for continuous quantum variables S.L. Braunstein. 4. Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm for continuous variables A.K. Pati, S.L. Braunstein. 5. Hybrid quantum computing S. Lloyd. 6. Efficient classical simulation of continuous variable quantum information processes S.D. Bartlett, B.C. Sanders, S.L. Braunstein, K. Nemoto. Part II: Quantum Entanglement. 7. Introduction to entanglement-based protocols S.L. Braunstein, A.K. Pati. 8. Teleportation of continuous uantum variables S.L. Braunstein, H.J. Kimble. 9. Experimental realization of continuous variable teleportation A. Furusawa, H.J. Kimble. 10. Dense coding for continuous variables S.L. Braunstein, H.J. Kimble. 11. Multipartite Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger paradoxes for continuous variables S. Massar, S. Pironio. 12. Multipartite entanglement for continuous variables P. van Loock, S.L. Braunstein. 13. Inseparability criterion for continuous variable systems Lu-Ming Duan, G. Giedke, J.I. Cirac, P. Zoller. 14. Separability criterion for Gaussian states R. Simon. 15. Distillability and entanglement purification for Gaussian states G. Giedke, Lu-Ming Duan, J.I. Cirac, P. Zoller. 16. Entanglement purification via entanglement swapping S. Parke, S. Bose, M.B. Plenio. 17. Bound entanglement for continuous variables is a rare phenomenon P. Horodecki, J.I. Cirac, M. Lewenstein. Part III: Continuous Variable Optical-Atomic Interfacing. 18. Atomic continuous variable processing and light-atoms quantum interface A. Kuzmich, E.S. Polzik. Part IV: Limits on Quantum Information and Cryptography. 19. Limitations on discrete quantum information and cryptography S.L. Braunstein, A.K. Pati. 20. Quantum cloning with continuous variables N.J. Cerf. 21. Quantum key distribution with continuous variables in optics T.C. Ralph. 22. Secure quantum key distribution using squeezed states D. Gottesman, J. Preskill. 23. Experimental demonstration of dense coding and quantum cryptography with continuous variables Kunchi Peng, Qing Pan, Jing Zhang, Changde Xie. 24. Quantum solitons in optical fibres: basic requisites for experimental quantum communication G. Leuchs, Ch. Silberhorn, E. Konig, P.K. Lam, A. Sizmann, N. Korolkova. Index.

2,940 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: CCP4i is a graphical user interface that makes running programs from the CCP4 suite simpler and quicker and is particularly directed at inexperienced users and tightly linked to introductory and scientific documentation.
Abstract: CCP4i is a graphical user interface that makes running programs from the CCP4 suite simpler and quicker. It is particularly directed at inexperienced users and tightly linked to introductory and scientific documentation. It also provides a simple project-management system and visualization tools. The system is readily extensible and not specific to CCP4 software.

1,190 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This evolving classification rationalises structural and mechanistic investigation, harnesses information from a wide variety of related enzymes to inform cell biology and overcomes recurrent problems in the functional prediction of glycosyltransferase-related open-reading frames.

1,155 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The underlying mechanisms responsible for the dynamic response of plant respiration to short and long-term temperature changes are discussed, including shifts in the control exerted by maximum enzyme activity at low temperature and substrate limitations at high temperature.

1,130 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
J. John Mann1
TL;DR: A proposed stress–diathesis model is described in clinical and neurobiological terms, and correlates of the diathesis for suicidal acts point to the involvement of the serotonergic and noradrenergic systems, and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex.
Abstract: About one million suicides and ten million suicide attempts occur worldwide each year. Suicide is not simply a response to stress, but generally a complication of a psychiatric disorder. A proposed stress–diathesis model is described in clinical and neurobiological terms. Neurobiological correlates of the diathesis for suicidal acts point to the involvement of the serotonergic and noradrenergic systems, and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Some treatments seem to reduce suicide risk independently of an effect on the primary psychiatric disorder, perhaps by reducing the diathesis.

1,063 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used a three stage Delphi questionnaire with 23 participants drawn from the communities of leading and acknowledged international experts of science educators; scientists; historians, philosophers, and sociologists of science; experts engaged in work to improve the public understanding of science and expert science teachers.
Abstract: Recent arguments in science education have proposed that school science should pay more attention to teaching the nature of science and its social practices. However, unlike the content of science, for which there is well-established consensus, there would appear to be much less unanimity within the academic community about which ideas-about-science are essential elements that should be included in the contemporary school science curriculum. Hence, this study sought to determine empirically the extent of any consensus using a three stage Delphi questionnaire with 23 participants drawn from the communities of leading and acknowledged international experts of science educators; scientists; historians, philosophers, and sociologists of science; experts engaged in work to improve the public understanding of science; and expert science teachers. The outcome of the research was a set of nine themes encapsulating key ideas about the nature of science for which there was consensus and which were considered to be an essential component of school science curriculum. Together with extensive comments provided by the participants, these data give some measure of the existing level of agreement in the community engaged in science education and science communication about the salient features of a vulgarized account of the nature of science. Although some of the themes are already a feature of existing school science curricula, many others are not. The findings of this research, therefore, challenge (a) whether the picture of science represented in the school science curriculum is sufficiently comprehensive, and (b) whether there balance in the curriculum between teaching about the content of science and the nature of science is appropriate.

988 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that, by integrating large-scale networks of marine reserves into fishery management, they could reverse global fishery declines and provide urgently needed protection for ecosystems.
Abstract: Marine reserves are areas of the sea where fishing is not allowed. They provide refuges where populations of exploited species can recover and habitats modified by fishing can regenerate. In some places, closed areas have been used for fisheries management for centuries [1] and, until recently, natural refugia also existed, inaccessible through depth, distance or adverse conditions. Developments in technology have left few areas of fishing interest beyond our reach. Recently, the idea of marine reserves as fisheries management tools has re-emerged with developing interest in ecosystembased management, and observations of incidental fisheries benefits from reserves established for conservation. In light of new evidence, we argue that, by integrating large-scale networks of marine reserves into fishery management, we could reverse global fishery declines and provide urgently needed protection for

929 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Exposure to complementary representations of the poor as happier and more honest than the rich would lead to increased support for the status quo and the Protestant work ethic may moderate the effects of stereotype exposure on explicit system justification.
Abstract: It was hypothesized that exposure to complementary representations of the poor as happier and more honest than the rich would lead to increased support for the status quo. In Study 1, exposure to “poor but happy” and “rich but miserable” stereotype exemplars led people to score higher on a general measure of system justification, compared with people who were exposed to noncomplementary exemplars. Study 2 replicated this effect with “poor but honest” and “rich but dishonest” complementary stereotypes. In Studies 3 and 4, exposure to noncomplementary stereotype exemplars implicitly activated justice concerns, as indicated by faster reaction times to justice-related than neutral words in a lexical decision task. Evidence also suggested that the Protestant work ethic may moderate the effects of stereotype exposure on explicit system justification (but not implicit activation).

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This work describes the conceptual basis and practical implementation of a dual-task approach to the direct measurement of cognitive load in multimedia learning and provides a direct and objective measure that overcomes many of the shortcomings of other indirect and subjective methods that will enable researchers to validate empirically theoretical predictions of CLT.
Abstract: Cognitive load theory (CLT) is gaining increasing importance in the design and evaluation of instruction, both traditional and technology based. Although it is well understood as a theoretical construct, the measurement of cognitive load induced by instructional materials in general, and by multimedia instruction in particular, mainly relies on methods that are either indirect, subjective, or both. Integrating aspects of CLT, working memory research, and cognitive theories of multimedia learning, we describe the conceptual basis and practical implementation of a dual-task approach to the direct measurement of cognitive load in multimedia learning. This computer-based instrument provides a direct and objective measure that overcomes many of the shortcomings of other indirect and subjective methods that will enable researchers to validate empirically theoretical predictions of CLT.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is proposed that the nucleolus is a stress sensor responsible for maintenance of low levels of p53, which are automatically elevated as soon as nucleolar function is impaired in response to stress.
Abstract: p53 protects against cancer through its capacity to induce cell cycle arrest or apoptosis under a large variety of cellular stresses. It is not known how such diversity of signals can be integrated by a single molecule. However, the literature reveals that a common denominator in all p53-inducing stresses is nucleolar disruption. We thus postulated that the impairment of nucleolar function might stabilize p53 by preventing its degradation. Using micropore irradiation, we demonstrate that large amounts of nuclear DNA damage fail to stabilize p53 unless the nucleolus is also disrupted. Forcing nucleolar disruption by anti-upstream binding factor (UBF) microinjection (in the absence of DNA damage) also causes p53 stabilization. We propose that the nucleolus is a stress sensor responsible for maintenance of low levels of p53, which are automatically elevated as soon as nucleolar function is impaired in response to stress. Our model integrates all known p53-inducing agents and also explains cell cycle-related variations in p53 levels which correlate with established phases of nucleolar assembly/disassembly through the cell cycle.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors explored the basis by which thematic dependencies can be evaluated in advance of linguistic input that unambiguously signals those dependencies, and found that verb-based information is not limited to anticipating the immediately following (grammatical) object, but can also anticipate later occurring objects.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The basis for a sociology of expectations is developed, drawing on recent writing within Science and Technology Studies and case studies of biotechnology innovation, and a model for understanding how expectations will predictably vary according to some key parameters is offered.
Abstract: Future expectations and promise are crucial to providing the dynamism and momentum upon which so many ventures in science and technology depend. This is especially the case for pre-market applications where practical utility and value has yet to be demonstrated and where investment must sustained. For instance, clinical biotechnology (including a wide range of genetic therapeutic and engineering applications) has been at the centre of ferocious debates about whether or not promises and expectations will be realised. In some cases, the failure of expectations has severely damaged the reputation and credibility of professions, institutions and industry. The need for a better analytical understanding of the dynamics of expectations in innovation is both necessary and timely.

Journal ArticleDOI
13 Jun 2003-Science
TL;DR: The discovery of the likely antiquity and taxonomic diversity of ultrasmall eukaryotes and a fundamental rethinking of the position of the root suggest major gaps in understanding of what eukARYotes are or, when it comes to the tree, even which end is up.
Abstract: Most cultivated and characterized eukaryotes can be confidently assigned to one of eight major groups. After a few false starts, we are beginning to resolve relationships among these major groups as well. However, recent developments are radically revising this picture again, particularly (i) the discovery of the likely antiquity and taxonomic diversity of ultrasmall eukaryotes, and (ii) a fundamental rethinking of the position of the root. Together these data suggest major gaps in our understanding simply of what eukaryotes are or, when it comes to the tree, even which end is up.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper reviewed the history of the development of the Contact Hypothesis, and examined recent developments in this area, including conditions that are required for successful contact to occur, investigated basic psychological processes that may mediate the consequent reductions in bias, and explored factors that can facilitate the generalization of the benefits of intergroup contact in terms of more positive attitudes toward the outgroup as a whole (e.g. increased group salience).
Abstract: The Contact Hypothesis has long been considered one of psychology’s most effective strategies for improving intergroup relations. In this article, we review the history of the development of the Contact Hypothesis, and then we examine recent developments in this area. Specifically, we consider the conditions that are required for successful contact to occur (e.g. cooperation), investigate basic psychological processes that may mediate the consequent reductions in bias (e.g. decreased intergroup anxiety, increased common group representations), and explore factors that can facilitate the generalization of the benefits of intergroup contact in terms of more positive attitudes toward the outgroup as a whole (e.g. increased group salience). We conclude by outlining the contents of the contributions to this Special Issue on Intergroup Contact, highlighting common themes, and identifying findings that suggest directions for future research.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a model of interpersonal sensemaking and describe how this process contributes to the meaning that employees make of their work, and present examples from organizational research to illustrate this process.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Plants provide an inexpensive and convenient system for the large-scale production of valuable recombinant proteins and will only realize its huge potential if constraints are removed through rigorous and detailed science-based studies.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The annual medical costs of diabetic peripheral neuropathy and its complications among people with type 1 and type 2 diabetes in the U.S. was estimated to be between $4.6 and $13.7 billion, up to 27% of the direct medical cost of diabetes.
Abstract: OBJECTIVE —Peripheral neuropathy is common among people with diabetes and can result in foot ulceration and amputation. The aim of this study was to quantify the annual medical costs of peripheral neuropathy and its complications among people with type 1 and type 2 diabetes in the U.S. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS —A cost-of-illness model was used to estimate the numbers of diabetic individuals in the U.S. who have diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) and/or neuropathic foot ulcers (both those with no deep infection and those accompanied by cellulitis or osteomyelitis) at a given point in time, and/or a toe, foot, or leg amputation during a year. Prevalence and incidence rates were estimated from published studies and applied to the general U.S. population. All costs were estimated in 2001 U.S. dollars. In a sensitivity analysis, we varied the rates of complications to assess the robustness of the cost estimates. RESULTS —The annual costs of DPN and its complications in the U.S. were $0.8 billion (type 1 diabetes), $10.1 billion (type 2 diabetes), and $10.9 billion (total). After allowing for uncertainty in the point estimates of complication rates, the range of costs were between $0.3 and $1.0 billion (type 1 diabetes), $4.3b and $12.7 billion (type 2 diabetes), and $4.6 and $13.7 billion (type 1 and type 2 diabetes). CONCLUSIONS —The total annual cost of DPN and its complications in the U.S. was estimated to be between $4.6 and $13.7 billion. Up to 27% of the direct medical cost of diabetes may be attributed to DPN.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A range of instruments with differing characteristics are available to researchers interested in organizational culture, all of which have limitations in terms of their scope, ease of use, or scientific properties.
Abstract: Health system reforms have until recently tended to focus primarily on structural change. The introduction of managed care in the United States (Miller and Luft 1997), the establishment of standard-setting bodies such as the National Institute for Clinical Excellence (Department of Health 1998) in the United Kingdom, the development of medical error reporting systems in Australia (Wilson et al. 1995), and the restructuring of primary care in the United Kingdom and Canada (Hutchison, Abelson, and Lavis 2001) are examples of this approach. However, recent studies show that structural changes alone do not deliver anticipated improvements in quality and performance in health care (Le Grand, May, and Mulligan 1998; Shortell, Bennett, and Byck 1998). As a result, we hear calls for “cultural transformation” to be wrought alongside structural change in order to deliver improvements in quality and performance. This call has been prominent in the United States (Institute of Medicine 2001) and also as a central component of the recent reforms of the National Health Service (NHS) in the United Kingdom (Department of Health 2000; 2002). A theory of organizational culture emerges from a combination of organizational psychology, social psychology, and social anthropology. The development of organizational culture as a subject of study can be seen as an elaboration of the human relations (Roethlisberger and Dickson 1939) and social systems approaches (Parsons 1977); which in turn developed as correctives to the scientific management techniques of Frederick Winslow (“Speedy”) Taylor, and his successor Frank B. Gilbreth. The study of organizations has been conducted from within various different theories or paradigms (Burrell and Morgan 1979). The term “organizational culture” first appeared in the academic literature in an article in Administrative Science Quarterly by Pettigrew (Pettigrew 1979; Hofstede et al. 1990)—though Jacques refers to the culture of a factory as early 1952 (Jacques 1952). Its constituent themes can be traced to earlier literature on organizational analysis. Pettigrew's own empirical study of a private British boarding school appears strongly influenced by Burton Clarke (Clarke 1970). Both trace the influence of the strong, idiosyncratic individuals who founded the organizations. This concern with the role of leaders and leadership in turn underlines the influence of Selznick's Leadership in Administration (Selznick 1957). Selznick distinguishes between two ideal types of enterprise: on the one hand, a rational instrumental organization and, on the other hand, the value-infused institution. According to Selznick, the term “organisation” suggests a technical instrument to harness human energies and direct them towards set aims, while the term “institution” suggests an organic social entity, or culture. Organizational culture has been variously defined (Ott 1989; Schein 1990; Davies, Nutley, and Mannion 2000). It denotes a wide range of social phenomena, including an organization's customary dress, language, behavior, beliefs, values, assumptions, symbols of status and authority, myths, ceremonies and rituals, and modes of deference and subversion; all of which help to define an organization's character and norms. Unsurprisingly in view of this diverse array of phenomena, little agreement exists over a precise definition of organizational culture, how it should be observed or measured, or how different methodologies can be used to inform routine administration or organizational change. While some commentators see the task in terms of specific and measurable variables, traits or processes, others see it as a global challenge to capture culture as an intrinsic property of the social milieu that forms whenever people are brought together in common enterprise. A third approach sees organizational culture as an anthropological metaphor or a paradigm (Burrell and Morgan 1979; Burrell 1996) to analyze organizations as microsocieties (Morgan, Frost, and Pondy 1983; Smircich 1983; Morgan 1986). According to Edgar Schein, Organizational culture is the pattern of shared basic assumptions—invented, discovered, or developed by a given group as it learns to cope with its problems of external adaptation and internal integration—that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems (Schein 1985a). This definition captures one of the basic challenges faced by any culture to reconcile the often divergent aims and actions of its members. It also points to the difficulty of addressing that challenge. Its emphasis on the role of shared basic assumptions influencing beliefs and behavior suggests that organizational culture denotes much more than just “the way things are done around here” (Davies, Nutley, and Mannion 2000). Changing the way things are done appears, on the functional level of systems redesign, relatively easy. Attempting to understand why things are done in their distinctive ways, the factors underlying resistance to change attempts, and the extent to which new practices are sustained is far more challenging. To successfully engender change in organizational behavior we need to understand the collective thought processes informing that behavior at both conscious and unconscious levels. This is where a deeper analysis and understanding of organizational culture may be productive. Advocates of strategic cultural change typically make a number of implicit assumptions. First, health organizations possess discernible cultures, which affect quality and performance. Second, although cultures may be resistant to change, they are to some extent malleable and manageable. Third, it is possible to identify particular cultural attributes that facilitate or inhibit good performance and it should therefore be feasible for managers to design strategies for cultural change. Finally, it is assumed that any benefits accruing from the change will outweigh any dysfunctional consequences. Although there is as yet little empirical evidence to support these assumptions, some academics and many policymakers are showing renewed interest in the quantitative measurement of organizational culture in order to determine its relationship with performance and quality of care (Davies, Nutley, and Mannion 2000; Shortell et al. 2000; Shortell et al. 2001). A range of tools designed to measure organizational culture have been developed and applied in industrial, educational, and health care settings over the last two decades. In this paper we describe the results of an extensive review of these instruments and examine their usefulness for health service researchers. The review forms part of a larger study into the relationship between organizational culture and the performance of health organizations (Scott et al. 2001, In press).

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: MAX4 and RMS1 were found to encode orthologous, auxin-inducible members of the polyene dioxygenase family, suggesting that MAX4 is required to produce a mobile branch-inhibiting signal, acting downstream of auxin.
Abstract: Shoot branching is inhibited by auxin transported down the stem from the shoot apex. Auxin does not accumulate in inhibited buds and so must act indirectly. We show that mutations in the MAX4 gene of Arabidopsis result in increased and auxin-resistant bud growth. Increased branching in max4 shoots is restored to wild type by grafting to wild-type rootstocks, suggesting that MAX4 is required to produce a mobile branch-inhibiting signal, acting downstream of auxin. A similar role has been proposed for the pea gene, RMS1. Accordingly, MAX4 and RMS1 were found to encode orthologous, auxin-inducible members of the polyene dioxygenase family.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Findings support the hypothesis that interpersonal goals are component features of relationship representations and that mere activation of those representations, even in the partner's physical absence, causes the goals to become active and to guide behavior nonconsciously within the current situation.
Abstract: The mere psychological presence of relationship partners was hypothesized to trigger interpersonal goals that are then pursued nonconsciously. Qualitative data suggested that people tend to pursue different interpersonal goals within different types of relationships (e.g., mother, best friend, coworker). In several studies, priming participants' relationship representations produced goal-directed behavior (achievement, helping, understanding) in line with the previously assessed goal content of those representations. These findings support the hypothesis that interpersonal goals are component features of relationship representations and that mere activation of those representations, even in the partner's physical absence, causes the goals to become active and to guide behavior nonconsciously within the current situation.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The development of 56 children at family risk of dyslexia was followed from the age of 3 years, 9 months to 8 years, and in the high-risk group, 66% had reading disabilities at age 8 years compared with 13% in a control group from similar, middle-class backgrounds.
Abstract: The development of 56 children at family risk of dyslexia was followed from the age of 3 years, 9 months to 8 years. In the high-risk group, 66% had reading disabilities at age 8 years compared with 13% in a control group from similar, middle-class backgrounds. However, the family risk of dyslexia was continuous, and high-risk children who did not fulfil criteria for reading impairment at 8 years performed as poorly at age 6 as did high-risk impaired children on tests of grapheme–phoneme knowledge. The findings are interpreted within an interactive model of reading development in which problems in establishing a phonological pathway in dyslexic families may be compensated early by children who have strong language skills.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Unintentional falls impose a substantial burden on health and social services and cost the UK government £981 million in the 60–64 age group, increasing to £1 500 000 in the ⩾75 age group.
Abstract: Study objective: To estimate the number of accident and emergency (A&E) attendances, admissions to hospital, and the associated costs as a result of unintentional falls in older people. Design: Analysis of national databases for cost of illness. Setting: United Kingdom, 1999, cost to the National Health Service (NHS) and Personal Social Services (PSS). Participants: Four age groups of people 60 years and over (60–64, 65–69, 70–74, and ⩾75) attending an A&E department or admitted to hospital after an unintentional fall. Databases analysed were the Home Accident Surveillance System (HASS) and Leisure Accident Surveillance System (LASS), and Hospital Episode Statistics (HES). Main results: There were 647 721 A&E attendances and 204 424 admissions to hospital for fall related injuries in people aged 60 years and over. For the four age groups A&E attendance rates per 10 000 population were 273.5, 287.3, 367.9, and 945.3, and hospital admission rates per 10 000 population were 34.5, 52.0, 91.9, and 368.6. The cost per 10 000 population was £300 000 in the 60–64 age group, increasing to £1 500 000 in the ⩾75 age group. These falls cost the UK government £981 million, of which the NHS incurred 59.2%. Most of the costs (66%) were attributable to falls in those aged ⩾75 years. The major cost driver was inpatient admissions, accounting for 49.4% of total cost of falls. Long term care costs were the second highest, accounting for 41%, primarily in those aged ⩾75 years. Conclusions: Unintentional falls impose a substantial burden on health and social services.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The extent to which bleaching in different symbioses and in response to different triggers involves common mechanisms is currently unknown, but a contribution of interactions between the algal and animal partners to bleaching is predicted.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a series of criteria that allow preliminary evaluation of candidate sites according to their relative biological values in advance of the application of socioeconomic criteria is developed to promote the development of reserve networks that will maintain biodiversity and ecosystem functioning at large scales.
Abstract: Several schemes have been developed to help select the locations of marine reserves. All of them combine social, economic, and biological criteria, and few offer any guidance as to how to prioritize among the criteria identified. This can imply that the relative weights given to different criteria are unimportant. Where two sites are of equal value ecologically; then socioeconomic criteria should dominate the choice of which should be protected. However, in many cases, socioeconomic criteria are given equal or greater weight than ecological considerations in the choice of sites. This can lead to selection of reserves with little biological value that fail to meet many of the desired objectives. To avoid such a possibility, we develop a series of criteria that allow preliminary evaluation of candidate sites according to their relative biological values in advance of the application of socioeconomic criteria. We include criteria that,. while not strictly biological, have a strong influence on the species present or ecological processes. Out scheme enables sites to be assessed according to their biodiversity, the processes which underpin that diversity, and the processes that support fisheries and provide a spectrum of other services important to people. Criteria that capture biodiversity values include biogeographic representation, habitat representation and heterogeneity, and presence of species or populations of special interest (e.g., threatened species). Criteria that capture sustainability of biodiversity and fishery values include the size of reserves necessary to protect viable habitats, presence of exploitable species, vulnerable life stages, connectivity among reserves, links among ecosystems, and provision of ecosystem services to people. Criteria measuring human and natural threats enable candidate sites to be eliminated from consideration if risks are too great, but also help prioritize among sites where threats can be mitigated by protection. While our criteria can be applied to the design of reserve networks, they also enable choice of single reserves to be made in the context of the attributes of existing protected areas. The overall goal of our scheme is to promote the development of reserve networks that will maintain biodiversity and ecosystem functioning at large scales. The values of eco-system goods and services for people ultimately depend on meeting this objective.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: By analyzing automated Gene Ontology assignments, this work provides a detailed view of important S. mansoni biological systems, including characterization of metazoa-specific and eukarya-conserved genes, and identifies novel proteins to be investigated as vaccine candidates and potential drug targets.
Abstract: Schistosoma mansoni is the primary causative agent of schistosomiasis, which affects 200 million individuals in 74 countries. We generated 163,000 expressed-sequence tags (ESTs) from normalized cDNA libraries from six selected developmental stages of the parasite, resulting in 31,000 assembled sequences and 92% sampling of an estimated 14,000 gene complement. By analyzing automated Gene Ontology assignments, we provide a detailed view of important S. mansoni biological systems, including characterization of metazoa-specific and eukarya-conserved genes. Phylogenetic analysis suggests an early divergence from other metazoa. The data set provides insights into the molecular mechanisms of tissue organization, development, signaling, sexual dimorphism, host interactions and immune evasion and identifies novel proteins to be investigated as vaccine candidates and potential drug targets.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The interval regression approach, which exploits a mapping from the empirical distribution function (EDF) of HUI into SAH, outperforms the other approaches and can be extended to allow for differences in SAH thresholds across different groups of people and to measuring and decomposing 'pure' health inequality.