Showing papers by "World Bank published in 2002"
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors studied the impact of trade and foreign direct investment on the productivity of domestic firms in the manufacturing sector in the country of Lithuania and found that a 10 percent increase in the foreign presence in downstream sectors is associated with a 0.38 percent rise in output of each domestic firm in the supplying industry.
Abstract: Many countries compete against one another in attracting foreign investors by offering ever more generous incentive packages and justifying their actions with the productivity gains that are expected to accrue to domestic producers from knowledge externalities generated by foreign affiliates. Despite this being hugely important to public policy choices, there is little conclusive evidence indicating that domestic firms benefit from foreign presence in their sector. It is possible, though, that researchers have been looking for foreign direct investment (FDI) spillovers in the wrong place. Multinationals have an incentive to prevent information leakage that would enhance the performance of their local competitors in the same industry but at the same time may want to transfer knowledge to their local suppliers in other sectors. Spillovers from FDI may be, therefore, more likely to take place through backward linkages - that is, contacts between domestic suppliers of intermediate inputs and their multinational clients - and thus would not have been captured by the earlier literature. This paper focuses on the understudied issue of FDI spillovers through backward linkages and goes beyond existing studies by shedding some light on factors driving this phenomenon. It also improves over existing literature by addressing several econometric problems that may have biased the results of earlier research. Based on a firm-level panel data set from Lithuania, the estimation results are consistent with the existence of productivity spillovers. They suggest that a 10 percent increase in the foreign presence in downstream sectors is associated with 0.38 percent rise in output of each domestic firm in the supplying industry. The data indicate that these spillovers are not restricted geographically, since local firms seem to benefit from the operation of downstream foreign affiliates on their own, as well as in other regions. The results further show that greater productivity benefits are associated with domestic-market, rather than export-oriented, foreign affiliates. But no difference is detected between the effects of fully-owned foreign firms and those with joint domestic and foreign ownership. The findings of a positive correlation between productivity growth of domestic firms and the increase in multinational presence in downstream sectors should not, however, be interpreted as a call for subsidizing FDI. These results are consistent with the existence of knowledge spillovers from foreign affiliates to their local suppliers, but they may also be a result of increased competition in upstream sectors. While the former case would call for offering FDI incentive packages, it would not be the optimal policy in the latter. Certainly more research is needed to disentangle these two effects. This paper - a product of Trade, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study the contribution of trade and foreign direct investment to technology transfer.
3,013 citations
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TL;DR: In the 40-plus year history of estimates of returns to investment in education, there have been several reviews of the empirical results in attempts to establish patterns as discussed by the authors, and many more estimates from a wide variety of countries, including over time evidence, and estimates based on new econometric techniques, reaffirm the importance of human capital theory.
Abstract: Returns to investment in education based on human capital theory have been estimated since the late 1950s. In the 40-plus year history of estimates of returns to investment in education, there have been several reviews of the empirical results in attempts to establish patterns. Many more estimates from a wide variety of countries, including over time evidence, and estimates based on new econometric techniques, reaffirm the importance of human capital theory. Psacharopoulos and Patrinos review and present the latest estimates and patterns as found in the literature at the turn of the century. However, because the availability of rate of return estimates has grown exponentially, the authors include a new section on the need for selectivity in comparing returns to investment in education and establishing related patterns. This paper - a product of the Education Sector Unit, Latin America and the Caribbean Region - is part of a larger effort in the region to document the benefits of investments in education.
2,461 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors focus on the issue of FDI spillovers through backward linkages and go beyond existing studies by shedding some light on factors driving this phenomenon, which is consistent with the existence of knowledge spillovers from foreign affiliates to their local suppliers, but they may also be a result of increased competition in upstream sectors.
Abstract: Many countries compete against one another in attracting foreign investors by offering ever more generous incentive packages and justifying their actions with the productivity gains that are expected to accrue to domestic producers from knowledge externalities generated by foreign affiliates. Despite this being hugely important to public policy choices, there is little conclusive evidence indicating that domestic firms benefit from foreign presence in their sector. It is possible, though, that researchers have been looking for foreign direct investment (FDI) spillovers in the wrong place. Multinationals have an incentive to prevent information leakage that would enhance the performance of their local competitors in the same industry but at the same time may want to transfer knowledge to their local suppliers in other sectors. Spillovers from FDI may be, therefore, more likely to take place through backward linkages-that is, contacts between domestic suppliers of intermediate inputs and their multinational clients-and thus would not have been captured by the earlier literature. This paper focuses on the understudied issue of FDI spillovers through backward linkages and goes beyond existing studies by shedding some light on factors driving this phenomenon. It also improves over existing literature by addressing several econometric problems that may have biased the results of earlier research. Based on a firm-level panel data set from Lithuania, the estimation results are consistent with the existence of productivity spillovers. They suggest that a 10 percent increase in the foreign presence in downstream sectors is associated with 0.38 percent rise in output of each domestic firm in the supplying industry. The data indicate that these spillovers are not restricted geographically, since local firms seem to benefit from the operation of downstream foreign affiliates on their own, as well as in other regions. The results further show that greater productivity benefits are associated with domestic-market, rather than export-oriented, foreign affiliates. But no difference is detected between the effects of fully-owned foreign firms and those with joint domestic and foreign ownership. The findings of a positive correlation between productivity growth of domestic firms and the increase in multinational presence in downstream sectors should not, however, be interpreted as a call for subsidizing FDI. These results are consistent with the existence of knowledge spillovers from foreign affiliates to their local suppliers, but they may also be a result of increased competition in upstream sectors. While the former case would call for offering FDI incentive packages, it would not be the optimal policy in the latter. Certainly more research is needed to disentangle these two effects.
2,127 citations
TL;DR: In the first stage of industrialization, pollution in the environmental Kuznets curve world grows rapidly because people are more interested in jobs and income than clean air and water, communities are too poor to pay for abatement, and environmental regulation is correspondingly weak as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: T he environmental Kuznets curve posits an inverted-U relationship between pollution and economic development. Kuznets's name was apparently attached to the curve by Grossman and Krueger (1993), who noted its resemblance to Kuznets's inverted-U relationship between income inequality and development. In the first stage of industrialization, pollution in the environmental Kuznets curve world grows rapidly because people are more interested in jobs and income than clean air and water, communities are too poor to pay for abatement, and environmental regulation is correspondingly weak. The balance shifts as income rises. Leading industrial sectors become cleaner, people value the environment more highly, and regulatory institutions become more effective. Along the curve, pollution levels off in the middle-income range and then falls toward pre-industrial levels in wealthy societies. The environmental Kuznets curve model has elicited conflicting reactions from researchers and policymakers. Applied econometricians have generally accepted the basic tenets of the model and focused on measuring its parameters. Their regressions, typically fitted to cross-sectional observations across countries or regions, suggest that air and water pollution increase with development until per capita income reaches a range of $5000 to $8000. When income rises beyond that level, pollution starts to decline, as shown in the "conventional EKC" line in Figure 1. In developing countries, some policymakers have interpreted such results as conveying a message about priorities: Grow first, then clean up. Numerous critics have challenged the conventional environmental Kuznets curve, both as a representation of what actually happens in the development process and as a policy prescription. Some pessimistic critics argue that crosssectional evidence for the environmental Kuznets curve is nothing more than a
1,455 citations
TL;DR: In the 40-plus year history of estimates of returns to investment in education, there have been several reviews of the empirical results in attempts to establish patterns as mentioned in this paper, and many more estimates from a wide variety of countries, including over time evidence, and estimates based on new econometric techniques, reaffirm the importance of human capital theory.
Abstract: Returns to investment in education based on human capital theory have been estimated since the late 1950s. In the 40-plus year history of estimates of returns to investment in education, there have been several reviews of the empirical results in attempts to establish patterns. Many more estimates from a wide variety of countries, including over time evidence, and estimates based on new econometric techniques, reaffirm the importance of human capital theory. The suthors review and present the latest estimates and patterns as found in the literature at the turn of the century. However, because the availability of rate of return estimates has grown exponentially, the authors include a new section on the need for selectivity in comparing returns to investment in education and establishing related patterns.
1,450 citations
TL;DR: Klapper and Love as discussed by the authors provide a study of firm-level corporate governance practices across emerging markets and a greater understanding of the environments under which corporate governance matters more, showing that better corporate governance is highly correlated with better operating performance and market valuation.
Abstract: Recent research studying the link between law and finance has concentrated on country-level investor protection measures and focused on differences in legal systems across countries and legal families. Klapper and Love extend this literature and provide a study of firm-level corporate governance practices across emerging markets and a greater understanding of the environments under which corporate governance matters more. Their empirical tests show that better corporate governance is highly correlated with better operating performance and market valuation. More important, the authors provide evidence showing that firm-level corporate governance provisions matter more in countries with weak legal environments. These results suggest that firms can partially compensate for ineffective laws and enforcement by establishing good corporate governance and providing credible investor protection. The authors' tests also show that firm-level governance and performance is lower in countries with weak legal environments, suggesting that improving the legal system should remain a priority for policymakers. This paper - a product of Finance, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to study corporate governance around the world.
1,130 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors find that explicit deposit insurance tends to be detrimental to bank stability, more so where bank interest rates are deregulated and the institutional environment is weak, and that the adverse impact of deposit insurance on bank stability is stronger the more extensive is the coverage offered to depositors, and where the scheme is funded and run by the government rather than the private sector.
961 citations
TL;DR: The most popular investments aim to encourage economic activities that indirectly protect ecosystems and species, as is commonly done in high-income nations as mentioned in this paper, while not a "silver bullet", direct approaches may, in many cases, be more effective and efficient than indirect ones, and thus merit greater attention in developing nations.
Abstract: International donors and private citizens have invested billions of dollars to protect biodiversity in developing nations. The most popular investments aim to encourage economic activities that indirectly protect ecosystems and species. An alternative form of investment is to pay directly for conservation outcomes, as is commonly done in high-income nations. While not a "silver bullet," direct approaches may, in many cases, be more effective and efficient than indirect ones, and thus merit greater attention in developing nations.
936 citations
TL;DR: The authors empirically assesses two theories of why legal origin influences financial development, i.e., political and adaptation, and concludes that legal systems that adapt quic kly to minimize the gap between the contracting needs of the economy and the legal system's capabilities will foster financial development more effectively than would more rigid legal traditions.
929 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors survey the empirical literature analyzing the process of enterprise restructuring in transition economies and provide new insights into the relative effectiveness of different reform policies, and into how this effectiveness varies across regions.
Abstract: We survey the empirical literature analyzing the process of enterprise restructuring in transition economies. The survey provides new insights into the relative effectiveness of different reform policies, and into how this effectiveness varies across regions. We study the effects of privatization, the importance of different types of owners, the effects of foreign and domestic competition, the consequences of soft budgets, and the role of managerial incentives and managerial human capital, with regard to enterprise restructuring.
894 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present an account of dimensions of human development, and show its usefulness and its limitations both in general and in relation to Amartya Sen's capability approach.
TL;DR: The authors showed that an increase of one standard deviation in corruption increases the Gini coefficient of income inequality by about 11 points and income growth of the poor by about 5 percentage points per year.
Abstract: This paper provides evidence that high and rising corruption increases income inequality and poverty. An increase of one standard deviation in corruption increases the Gini coefficient of income inequality by about 11 points and income growth of the poor by about 5 percentage points per year. These findings are robust to use of different instruments for corruption and other sensitivity analyses. The paper discusses several channels through which corruption may affect income inequality and poverty. An important implication of these findings is that policies that reduce corruption will most likely reduce income inequality and poverty as well.
TL;DR: It is found that, of 1393 new chemical entities marketed between 1975 and 1999, only 16 were for tropical diseases and tuberculosis, and there is a 13-fold greater chance of a drug being brought to market for central-nervous-system disorders or cancer than for a neglected disease.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors find evidence for neither the market-based nor the bank-based hypothesis, and they conclude that having a bank-or marketbased system per se does not seem to matter much.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors apply an econometric model of civil war to the analysis of conflict in sub-Saharan Africa and show that Africa has a similar incidence of civil conflict to that of other developing regions, and that, with minor exceptions, its conflicts are consistent with the global pattern of behavior.
Abstract: � In this paper the authors apply an econometric model of civil war to the analysis of conflict in sub-Saharan Africa. The research shows that Africa has had a similar incidence of civil conflict to that of other developing regions, and that, with minor exceptions, its conflicts are consistent with the global pattern of behavior. However, the structure of risk differs considerably from other regions. Africa's economic characteristics have made it more vulnerable to conflict, but this has been offset by social characteristics which make its societies atypically safe. The paper analyzes the contrasting trends of conflict: rising in Africa and declining in other regions. Africa's rising trend of conflict is due to its atypically poor economic performance
TL;DR: The current situation and perspectives for diagnosis, treatment, and control of visceral leishmaniasis are reviewed, and some priorities for research and development are listed.
Abstract: Visceral leishmaniasis is common in less developed countries, with an estimated 500000 new cases each year. Because of the diversity of epidemiological situations, no single diagnosis, treatment, or control will be suitable for all. Control measures through case finding, treatment, and vector control are seldom used, even where they could be useful. There is a place for a vaccine, and new imaginative approaches are needed. HIV co-infection is changing the epidemiology and presents problems for diagnosis and case management. Field diagnosis is difficult; simpler, less invasive tests are needed. Current treatments require long courses and parenteral administration, and most are expensive. Resistance is making the mainstay of treatment, agents based on pentavalent antimony, useless in northeastern India, where disease incidence is highest. Second-line drugs (pentamidine and amphotericin B) are limited by toxicity and availability, and newer formulations of amphotericin B are not affordable. The first effective oral drug, miltefosine, has been licensed in India, but the development of other drugs in clinical phases (paromomycin and sitamaquine) is slow. No novel compound is in the pipeline. Drug combinations must be developed to prevent drug resistance. Despite these urgent needs, research and development has been neglected, because a disease that mainly affects the poor ranks as a low priority in the private sector, and the public sector currently struggles to undertake the development of drugs and diagnostics in the absence of adequate funds and infrastructure. This article reviews the current situation and perspectives for diagnosis, treatment, and control of visceral leishmaniasis, and lists some priorities for research and development.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigate empirically whether firms in environments with more secure property rights allocate available resources more toward intangible assets and consequentially grow faster, finding that improved asset allocation due to better property rights has an effect on growth in sectoral value added equal to improved access to financing arising from greater financial development.
Abstract: The authors analyze how property rights affect the allocation of firms' available resources among different types of assets. In particular, they investigate empirically for a large number of countries whether firms in environments with more secure property rights allocate available resources more toward intangible assets and consequentially grow faster. The authors find that improved asset allocation due to better property rights has an effect on growth in sectoral value added equal to improved access to financing arising from greater financial development. The results are robust, using various samples and specifications, including controlling for growth opportunities.
TL;DR: It is argued that too little is known about the impacts of policies intended to combat inequalities in health notwithstanding a wealth of measurement techniques and considerable evidence on the extent and causes of inequalities.
Abstract: Poverty and ill-health are intertwined. Poor countries tend to have worse health outcomes than better-off countries. Within countries, poor people have worse health outcomes than better-off people. This association reflects causality running in both directions: poverty breeds ill-health, and ill-health keeps poor people poor. The evidence on inequalities in health between the poor and non-poor and on the consequences for impoverishment and income inequality associated with health care expenses is discussed in this article. An outline is given of what is known about the causes of inequalities and about the effectiveness of policies intended to combat them. It is argued that too little is known about the impacts of such policies, notwithstanding a wealth of measurement techniques and considerable evidence on the extent and causes of inequalities.
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TL;DR: Rajkumar and Swaroop as discussed by the authors examined the role of governance in the relationship between public spending and outcomes and found that public health spending lowers child and infant mortality rates in countries with good governance.
Abstract: Rajkumar and Swaroop examine the role of governance - measured by level of corruption and quality of bureaucracy - and ask how it affects the relationship between public spending and outcomes. Their main innovation is to see if differences in efficacy of public spending can be explained by quality of governance. The authors find that public health spending lowers child and infant mortality rates in countries with good governance. The results also indicate that as countries improve their governance, public spending on primary education becomes effective in increasing primary education attainment. These findings have important implications for enhancing the development effectiveness of public spending. The lessons are particularly relevant for developing countries, where public spending on education and health is relatively low, and the state of governance is often poor. This paper - a product of Public Services, Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the group to better understand issues relating to effective service delivery.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigate whether firms' access to external financing, to fund growth differs between market-based, and bank-based financial systems, using firm-level data for forty countries, and compute the proportion of firms in each country that relies on external finance, and examine how that proportion differs across financial systems.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigate the effect of financial, legal, and corruption problems on firms' growth rates and find that it is consistently the smallest firms that are most constrained.
Abstract: Using a unique firm-level survey database covering 54 countries, we investigate the effect of financial, legal, and corruption problems on firms’ growth rates. Whether these factors constrain growth depends very much on firm size. It is consistently the smallest firms that are most constrained. Financial and institutional development weakens the constraining effects of financial, legal and corruption obstacles and it is again the small firms that stand to benefit the most. There is only a weak relation between firms’ perception of the quality of the courts in their country and firm growth. We also provide evidence that the corruption of bank officials constrains firm growth.
TL;DR: In this article, a simple model of the incentives to commit crimes is proposed, which explicitly considers possible causes of the persistence of crime over time (criminal inertia), and a panel-data based GMM methodology is used to estimate a dynamic model of national crime rates.
TL;DR: The authors used household surveys for India's 15 major states spanning 1960-1994 to study how the sectoral composition of economic growth and initial conditions interact to influence how much growth reduced consumption poverty.
TL;DR: The three regimens studied are very efficacious for emergency contraception and prevent a high proportion of pregnancies if taken within 5 days of unprotected coitus, and most women menstruated within 2 days of the expected date.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that the welfare of the poor turns in large measure not only on technocratic development "policies", but also on the effective delivery of key public services, core elements of which require thousands of face-to-face discretionary transactions ("practices") by service providers.
Abstract: The welfare of the poor turns in large measure not only on technocratic development "policies", but the effective delivery of key public services, core elements of which require thousands of face-to-face discretionary transactions ("practices") by service providers. The importance of (often idiosyncratic) "practices" was largely ignored in the 1960s and 70s, however, as planners in developing countries sought to rapidly emulate the service delivery mechanisms of the developed countries, namely standardized (top-down) "programs"managed by a centralized civil service bureaucracy. Although this approach could claim some notable successes in poor countries, it soon became readily apparent that it had failed early and often in virtually all sectors. Three common civil service reforms in the 1980s also yielded disappointing results, so in the 1990s scholars and practitioners began to tout more radical "participatory" (or bottomup) proposals for improving service delivery. These new proposals have generated a series of unusual alliances and antagonisms in contemporary development debates. We attempt to unravel these debates by distinguishing between the original solution and eight current proposals for improving service delivery, on the basis of a principal-agent model of incentives that explores how these various proposals change flows of resources, information, decision-making, delivery mechanisms, and accountability. We briefly assess the arguments made by proponents and detractors of each approach, and suggest some of the implications of this framework for education, research, and those charged with improving service delivery.
TL;DR: Kaufmann et al. as mentioned in this paper used the methodology developed in Kaufmann, Kraay, and Zoido-Lobaton to construct aggregate governance indicators for six dimensions of governance, covering 175 countries in 2000-01.
Abstract: Updated governance indicators report estimates of six dimensions of governance for 175 countries in 2000-01. They can be compared with those constructed for 1997-98. Kaufmann, Kraay, and Zoido-Lobaton construct aggregate governance indicators for six dimensions of governance, covering 175 countries in 2000-01. They apply the methodology developed in Kaufmann, Kraay, and Zoido-Lobaton ("Aggregating Governance Indicators," Policy Research Working Paper 2195, and "Governance Matters," Policy Research Working Paper 2196, October 1999) to newly available data to arrive at governance indicators comparable with those constructed for 1997-98. The data is presented in the appendix, and accessible through an interactive Web-interface at http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance/govdata2001.htm. This paper - a joint product of the Development Research Group and the Governance, Regulation, and Finance Division, World Bank Institute - is part of a larger effort in the Bank to develop and analyze governance research indicators and trends worldwide. For access to the data and related papers, visit http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/governance/pubs/govmatters2001.htm. The authors may be contacted at dkaufmann@worldbank.org or akraay@worldbank.org.
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TL;DR: Kaufmann and Kraay as mentioned in this paper proposed an empirical strategy that allows separation of this correlation into (1) a strong positive causal effect running from better governance to higher per capita incomes, and, perhaps surprisingly at first, (2) a weak and even negative correlation effect running in the opposite direction from per capita income to governance, and suggested the absence of a "virtuous circle" in which higher incomes lead to further improvements in governance.
Abstract: It is well known that there is a strong positive correlation between per capita incomes and the quality of governance across countries. Kaufmann and Kraay propose an empirical strategy that allows separation of this correlation into (1) a strong positive causal effect running from better governance to higher per capita incomes, and, perhaps surprisingly at first, (2) a weak and even negative causal effect running in the opposite direction from per capita incomes to governance. The first result confirms existing evidence on the importance of good governance for economic development. The second result is new and suggests the absence of a "virtuous circle" in which higher incomes lead to further improvements in governance. This motivates the authors' choice of title, "Growth Without Governance." They document this evidence using a newly updated set of worldwide governance-indicators covering 175 countries for the period 2000-01, and use the results to interpret the relationship between incomes and governance focusing on the Latin America and Caribbean regionwithin a worldwide empirical context. Finally, the authors speculate about the potential importance of elite influence and state capture in accounting for the surprising negative effects of per capita incomes on governance, present some evidence on such capture in some Latin American countries, and suggest priorities for actions to improve governance when such pernicious elite influence shapes public policy. This paper - a joint product of the World Bank Institute and the Development Research Group - is part of a larger effort in the Bank to generate and analyze worldwide governance indicators, assessing the manifestations and consequences of governance.
TL;DR: The authors examined the link between investment and land tenure insecurity induced by China's system of village-level land reallocation and found that higher expropriation risk significantly reduces application of organic fertilizer, which has long lasting benefits for soil quality.
Abstract: This paper uses household data from Northeast China to examine the link between investment and land tenure insecurity induced by China’s system of village-level land reallocation. We quantify expropriation risk using a hazard analysis of individual plot tenures and incorporate the predicted “hazards of expropriation” into an empirical analysis of plot-level investment. Our focus is on organic fertilizer use, which has long lasting benefits for soil quality. Although we find that higher expropriation risk significantly reduces application of organic fertilizer, a welfare analysis shows that guaranteeing land tenure in this part of China would yield only minimal efficiency gains.
TL;DR: The authors developed an estimable micro model of consumption growth allowing for constraints on factor mobility and externalities, whereby geographic capital can influence the productivity of a household's own capital and found robust evidence of geographic poverty traps in farm-household panel data from post-reform rural China.
Abstract: How important are neighbourhood endowments of physical and human capital in explaining diverging fortunes over time for otherwise identical households in a developing rural economy? To answer this question we develop an estimable micro model of consumption growth allowing for constraints on factor mobility and externalities, whereby geographic capital can influence the productivity of a household's own capital. Our statistical test has considerable power in detecting geographic effects given that we control for latent heterogeneity in measured consumption growth rates at the micro level. We find robust evidence of geographic poverty traps in farm-household panel data from post-reform rural China. Our results strengthen the equity and efficiency case for public investment in lagging poor areas in this setting. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
TL;DR: The World Bank, Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. as discussed by the authors The World Bank's Center for Applied Biodiversity Science, Conservation International, Washington DC, 20037, United States.
Abstract: *Center for Applied Biodiversity Science, Conservation International, Washington, D.C, 20037, U.S.A.†Climate Change Research Group, Ecology and Conservation, National Botanical Institute, Cape Town, South Africa‡The World Bank, Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.§Botany Department, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa**Department of Biological Sciences, College of Science and Liberal Arts, Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne,FL 32901–6975, U.S.A.††Environment Department, University of York, York, Y010 5DD, United Kingdom‡‡Adaptation and Impacts Research Group, Environment Canada at the Faculty of Environmental Studies, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada§§Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, United Kingdom