Showing papers by "York University published in 1987"

Self-discrepancy: a theory relating self and affect.

Abstract: This article presents a theory of how different types of discrepancies between self-state representations are related to different kinds of emotional vulnerabilities. One domain of the self (actual; ideal; ought) and one standpoint on the self (own; significant other) constitute each type of self-state representation. It is proposed that different types of self-discrepancies represent different types of negative psychological situations that are associated with different kinds of discomfort. Discrepancies between the actual/own self-state (i.e., the self-concept) and ideal self-states (i.e., representations of an individual's beliefs about his or her own or a sitmifieant other's hopes, wishes, or aspirations for the individual) signify the absence of positive outcomes, which is associated with dejection-related emotions (e.g., disappointment, dissatisfaction, sadness). In contrast, discrepancies between the actual/own self-state and ought self-states (i.e., representations of an individual's beliefs about his or her own or a significant other's beliefs about the individual's duties, responsibilities, or obligations) signify the presence of negative outcomes, which is associated with agitation-related emotions (e.g., fear, threat, restlessness). Differences in both the relative magnitude and the accessibility of individuals' available types of self-discrepancies are predicted to be related to differences in the kinds of discomfort people are likely to experience. Correlational and experimental evidence supports the predictions of the model. Differences between self-discrepancy theory and (a) other theories of incompatible self-beliefs and (b) actual self negativity (e.g., low self-esteem) are discussed.

Behavioral symptoms in Alzheimer's disease: Phenomenology and treatment.

Abstract: Limited information is available regarding the incidence, nature, and treatment of behavioral problems in Alzheimer's disease (AD). A chart review of 57 outpatients with a diagnosis of AD was conducted to examine these issues. Thirty-three (58%) patients had significant behavioral symptomatology (most commonly delusions, nonspecific agitation, and diurnal rhythm disturbances). Twenty-seven were treated with thioridazine (10-250 mg/day), 15 (55.6%) of whom were judged to have a positive response (mean maximum dose = 55 mg/day). Information regarding the characteristic phenomenology of the behavioral symptoms studied was used to design a clinical rating instrument for AD patients, the Behavioral Pathology in Alzheimer's Disease Rating Scale (BEHAVE-AD), which should be useful in prospective studies of behavioral symptoms as well as in pharmacologic trials.

"How Big Is Big Enough?": Sample Size and Goodness of Fit in Structural Equation Models with Latent Variables.

Abstract: s International, 45, 924B. Tanaka J. S. (1986). A note on the technical development of the ME2 estimator for moment structures. Manuscript in preparation. Tanaka, J. S., & Huba, G. J. (1984). Hierarchical confirmatory factor analyses of psychological distress measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 621-635. Tanaka, J. S., & Huba, G. J. (1985). A fit index for covariance structure models under arbitrary GLS estimation. British Journal of Mathemat- ical and Statistical Psychology, 38, 197-201. Tanaka, J. S., & Huba, G. J. (1986). Estimation strategies in structural models: The "goodness" of goodness of fit. Manuscript in preparation. Tanaka, J. S., & Huba, G. J. (in press). Assessing the stability of depression in college students. Mul- tivariate Behavioral Research. This content downloaded from 157.55.39.138 on Thu, 01 Dec 2016 05:43:19 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms 146 Child Development Theil, H. (1982). Some recent and new results on the maximum entropy distribution. Statistics & Probability Letters, 1, 17-22. Theil, H., & Laitinen, K. (1980). Singular moment matrices in applied econometrics. In P. R. Krishnaiah (Ed.), Multivariate analysis-V (pp. 629-649). Amsterdam: North-Holland. Tucker, L. R., & Lewis, C. (1973). A reliability coefficient for maximum likelihood factor analysis. Psychometrika, 38, 1-10. Tukey, J. W. (1986). Sunset salvo. American Statis- tician, 40, 72-76. Vinod, H. D. (1982). Maximum entropy measurement error estimates of singular covariance matrices in undersized samples. Journal of Econometrics, 20, 163-174. Wechsler, D. (1967). Manual for the Wechsler Pre- school and Primary Scale of Intelligence. New York: Psychological Corp. White, H. (1984). Asymptotic theory for econome- tricians. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. Woodward, J. A., & Bentler, P. M. (1978). A statisti- cal lower bound to population reliability. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 1323-1326. This content downloaded from 157.55.39.138 on Thu, 01 Dec 2016 05:43:19 UTC All use subject to http://about.jstor.org/terms

Social Cognition and Social Perception

Abstract: constructs that represent them, no matter what the person's process­ ing goals during priming. Bargh & Pietromonaco ( 1982, Bargh et al 1986) showed that trait adjectives prime relevant trait constructs even when those adjectives are presented subliminally so that subjects are unaware of even the presence of the priming stimuli. Once a social construct is activated by environmental data, however, it constitutes a theory-driven influence on the interpretation of subsequent environmental events. But the accessible con­ struct will only have this influence if it is applicable (Le. related) to the data. Increases in the accessibility of available constructs in memory can also be the result of internal sources, such as one's current goals or needs (Bruner 1957, Higgins & King 1981 , Wyer & Srull 1981 , Srull & Wyer 1986). SOCIAL COGNmON AND PERCEPTION 375 Potentially the most influential of these "top-down" determinants of accessibility is the frequency with which one has used a certain construct to process social input (Higgins et al1982, Higgins et al1985, Bargh et al1986, Wyer & Sru11 1986). Frequent and consistent use of a construct, perhaps in response to constancies in one's particular social environment, appears to result in a chronic likelihood of using that construct across all situations. Higgins et al (1982) and Bargh and Thein (1985) have demonstrated that when people form an impression of a target person, they are more sensitive to information that is relevant to their chronically accessible constructs than that which is relevant to other available constructs. Moreover, people's greater sensitivity to stimuli related to chronically accessible constructs does not depend on that construct being primed or preactivated (Higgins et al 1982, Bargh et al 1986). And such stimuli are more likely than others to be de­ tected in the environment in the flrst place ( Bargh 1982, Bargh & Pratto 1986). Salience effects are a related example of the interplay between data-driven and theory-driven influences. Features of the current environmental context may activate certain temporary expectancies for the situation, so that people or events that do not flt these expectancies are more distinctive or salient and receive greater attention. Moreover, the resultant focus of attention on those particular features that make the person or event salient appears to result in the activation of other abstract representations in memory of which those features are a component, such as stereotypes. Such easily discriminated features as a person's sex, race, or age are particularly likely to be salient features of a social situation, especially when those features are in the contextual minority (Taylor et al 197 8 , Hamilton 1979, Ashmore & DelBoca 1981 , Deaux & Lewis 1984, McCann et al 1985). McArthur & Friedman (1980), for ex­ ample, varied the age, sex, and race composition of groups of stimulus persons and found that subjects' stereotypic beliefs influenced the overall positivity of their trait ratings for a group member only when that target person was in the contextual minority (see also Hamilton & Rose 1980). It would seem, therefore, that theory-driven influences on the encoding and interpretation of social information can themselves be determined by data­ driven means ( see Higgins & Lurie 1983, Bargh 1984). The interpretation and meaning given to a person's behavior and to social events are in large part a function of the relative accessibilities of relevant social constructs and stereotypes, which in turn are partly a function of features of the recent and current social environment. Moreover, there is evidence suggesting that stereotype activation by the contextual salience of stereotype-consistent in­ formation occurs under memory set conditions (Mills & Tyrrell 1983). The effects of salient information on the likelihood of stereotypic influences on encoding, therefore, is apparently not limited to occasions in which people have the goal of understanding the behavior of others. As Fiske et al (1982)

Attitudes and Attitude Change

Abstract: INTRODUCTION 575 ATTITUDE STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 Single Versus Multicomponent Views of Attitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 Values. Attitudes. and Cognitive Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Impact of Attitudes on Information Processing . . . . . . .. . . . ... . . .. ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOR RELATIONS . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . . ....... 583 The Theory of Reasoned Action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584 Process Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585 The Impact of Behavior on Attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590 ATTITUDE CHANGE INDUCED BY PERSUASIVE MESSAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 592 Messageand Issue-Relevant Thinking: A Systematic Approach 593 Heuristic Processing and Other Peripheral

Dynamics of automatic and controlled visual attention

Abstract: The time course of attention was experimentally observed using two kinds of stimuli: a cue to begin attending or to shift attention, and a stimulus to be attended. Precise measurements of the time course of attention show that it consists of two partially concurrent processes: a fast, effortless, automatic process that records the cue and its neighboring events; and a slower, effortful, controlled process that records the stimulus to be attended and its neighboring events.

Use and misuse of the concept of craving by alcohol, tobacco, and drug researchers.

Abstract: Summary ‘Craving’ is found in common usage as well as technical jargon. In ordinary use, the term refers to strong desire or intense longing. Recently the meaning of the technical term ‘craving’ has been stretched to include all dispositions of dependent persons to use the addictive substance. Some researchers have further extended the term to include dispositions to avoid the substance. We argue that the mismatch between the current technical use of ‘craving’ and its use in ordinary language is problematic and misleading in many cases. Examination of the literature on ‘craving’ reveals that the entity has been conceptualized in a variety of ways, each with implications for suitable research techniques. Whatever the model of ‘craving’, we urge scientists to be circumspect in their use of such a loaded term and to use it only for ‘strong desires’ to take drugs. To do otherwise can lead authors to make more of their findings than mould be supported by a more cautious use of words.

Cation or solvent-induced supermolecular phthalocyanine formation: crown ether substituted phthalocyanines

Abstract: : Phthalocyanies with four 15-crown-5 ether voids at the 3,4 positions (MtCRPc) (Mt = H2, Zn, Co, Ni and Cu) have been synthesized and characterised. Dimerization of MtCRPC is induced in solvents such as methanol and by addition of some cations (K(+), Ca(2+), and NH4(+), especially K(+). Cofacial dimer formation in the presence of these cations proceeds in a two-step three stage process, as indicated by absorption and emission spectroscopy. These species have a highly specific D4h eclipsed configuration providing well defined dimeric species for spectroscopic analysis. The ESR spectrum of the cation induced dimeric CuCRPc shows axial symmetry and may be analysed in terms of an inter-planar separation of 4.1 Angstroms. The 1H NMR spectra of the cation induced metal free and zinc dimers are consistent with an eclipsed configuration. Upper excited state (Soret, S2) emission is observed for the first time in the phthalocyanine series.

Organismic processes for neo‐piagetian theories: a dialectical causal account of cognitive development

Abstract: The paper criticizes some epistemological presuppositions of Piaget's and of neo-Piagetian's work, in particular, the psycho-Logical principle. This principle is contrasted with a more valid psycho-dialectical one. It is suggested that a dialectical-constructivist (i.e., causal-dynamic) perspective offers a causal theoretical framework for cognitive development that is superior to that of Piaget and many neo-Piagetians. I outline criteria for evaluating causal developmental theories, and point out deficiencies in Piaget's and neepiagetian's stage theories vis-a-vis the criteria. An organismic theory of constructive operators - a dialectical/causal theory - is introduced as a remedy for these deficiencies. I focus on a modular model of mental attention that is constituted by four dynamically interacting functional systems. These systems together explain the ‘beam’ of mental attention and its phenomenological/behavioural effects. I claim that the stages of cognitive development are caused by growth...

Correlates of burnout among public service lawyers

Abstract: Several hypotheses suggested by the theoretical literature on burnout were empirically tested in an attempt to identify the organizational conditions associated with employee burnout. Public service lawyers in the U.S. (N= 391) completed a survey designed to assess (a) three components of burnout, namely, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and feelings of low personal accomplishment; (b) perceptions of several job conditions predicted to be associated these three components of burnout, including workload, role conflict, social support, decision-making policies, and autonomy; and (c) organizational commitment. Results indicate that emotional exhaustion is most strongly associated with role conflict and quantitative workload. Feelings of personal accomplishment were associated with supervisory social support and job level. Depersonalization was associated with role conflict and decision-making policies. Finally, each burnout component is significantly related to organizational commitment.

Parent and professional evaluations of family stress associated with characteristics of autism

Abstract: This study assessed the impact of various individual symptoms of autism on mothers and fathers, and professionals' accuracy in estimating parents' perceived stress levels. Mothers and fathers of 20 autistic children, and 20 therapists working with those children, independently rated the severity of common symptoms of autism in their child, and how stressful they found each symptom; therapists estimated parental stress. The autistic child's language and cognitive impairment were judged by all raters as most severe and stressful. In contrast with other studies, individual parents agreed on both symptom severity and degree of stress. Parents of older children judged symptom severity to be lower, but fathers reported a continued high level of stress. Professionals judged families as more stressed by the child symptoms than did families themselves. Implications for intervention and casework are discussed.

Seeking rents by setting rents: the political economy of rent seeking*

Abstract: In recent years, there has been a large number of papers on the subject of rent seeking. Most such works on rent seeking have taken the rent as exogenously determined by regulators. Regulators, howeve r, may also be expected (and indeed have been shown) to be rent seeke rs and hence the determination of the rent itself should be endogeniz ed to reflect the fact that the rent setters are, themselves, rent se ekers. In this paper, the authors do this by presenting an analysis o f the interaction of regulators, firms, and consumers within a rent-s eeking framework where all three groups are assumed to be self-motiva ted. The analysis is carried out under alternative assumptions regard ing the nature of the market and the reaction functions of the partic ipants. Policy implications are drawn where appropriate. Copyright 1987 by Royal Economic Society.

Consciousness and Control The Case of Spontaneous Trait Inferences

Abstract: As research on unconscious processes in personality and social psychology increases, there is a danger that disparate phenomena will be confused with each other, and that characteristics of particular unconscious processes will be over generalized. In order to reduce this danger, a simple framework for describing unconscious phenomena is presented. It focuses on the related issues of consciousness and control. The framework was developed to clarify the theoretical status of spontaneous trait inferences, so that research is reviewed first. Then the framework is described, applied to spontaneous trait inferences, and further illustrated by using it to characterize automatic construct activation and mindlessness.

The specificity of UV-induced mutations at an endogenous locus in mammalian cells

Abstract: We have used a rapid in vivo recombinational method to clone and completely sequence 34 UV-induced mutants at the adenine phosphoribosyltransferase (APRT) locus of Chinese hamster ovary cells. Among the mutants recovered, 26 were single base substitutions including 17 G.C----A.T transitions and a single A.T----G.C transition. Three of the 4 possible transversions accounted for the remaining 8 mutations. The G.C----T.A transversion was not recovered. Six tandem double or closely neighboring double-base substitutions, one double mutation consisting of a G.C----T.A transversion and an adjacent frameshift, as well as one single frameshift mutation were also recovered. UV-induced mutation appears to be targeted to dipyrimidine sites with only two exceptions. These include two double mutations where only one of the base substitutions occurred at a dipyrimidine site. The observed specificity of UV-light-induced mutations at the APRT locus is consistent with the argument that G.C----A.T transitions result primarily from the (6-4) pyrimidine pyrimidone lesion. A striking resemblance in the distribution of UV-induced mutants and a collection of 30 spontaneous mutants identified recently in our laboratory was noted. Both share a common strong site of multiple occurrence and a considerable degree of overlap with respect to site specificity. We speculate therefore that DNA context plays a significant role in mutation fixation in mammalian cells.

Traits and social stereotypes: Levels of categorization in person perception.

Abstract: A theoretical distinction is made between trait categorization in person perception and categoriza-tion by means of well-articulated, concrete social stereotypes. Three studies test the prediction thatsocial stereotypes are both more associatively rich and more distinctive than are trait-defined catego-ries. In Study I, subjects sorted adjectives related to extroversion and introversion. A cluster analysisusing similarity measures derived from the sorting indicated that distinct social stereotypes wereassociated with each trait. This supports and extends earlier findings (Cantor & Mischel, 1979). InStudy 2, subjects generated attributes of the trait categories and stereotypes that emerged in Study1. More nonredundant attributes, especially visible features, were listed for the stereotypes than forthe trait categories. Study 3 elicited the explicit associative structure of traits and related stereotypesby having subjects rate the association between a series of attributes (derived from the responses inStudy 2) and each category label. Results showed that social stereotypes have distinctive featuresthat are not shared with the related trait category, whereas trait categories share virtually all oftheir features with related stereotypes. The implications of the trait/stereotype distinction for socialinformation processing are discussed.Substantial research has shown that the layperson assignsother individuals to social categories by means of implicit theo-ries of personality and uses these categories to predict potentialbehaviors, emotional reactions, personality attributes, atti-tudes, and values (Cantor & Mischel, 1979; Rosenberg & Sed-lack, 1972; Schneider, 1973; Wegner& Vallacher, 1977). In thisresearch, we contrast two types of representations used in socialcategorization, both of which can be observed in everyday life.First, people frequently use trait concepts to describe the essen-tial qualities of others. They may characterize people as tough,emotional, bright, or boring, for example, and in so doing as-sume that these traits have predictive power. In a second formof social categorization, people may explicitly categorize othersby thinking of them as members of a larger group. Such groupsoften bear a specific, socially shared label, such as redneck ordo-gooder, and they may be based on a number of features, in-cluding occupations and belief systems, as well as personalitytraits. These concepts are essentially well-articulated social ste-reotypes that are associated with a variety of highly visible char-acteristics, such as physical features, typical overt behaviors,and demographic identifications, in addition to relatively invisi-ble characteristics such as beliefs and internal experiences.Trait terms, in principle, designate single attributes that vari-ous kinds of people may possess. We propose on this basis that,considered in isolation, a given trait concept should not be veryWe would like to thank Deanna Bernstein, *Valerie Cathcart, and Su-sanna Perkins for their help in conducting this research.Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to SusanM. Andersen, who is now at the Department of Psychology, New TforkUniversity, 6 Washington Place, 4th Floor, New York, New York 10003,or to Roberta L. Klatzky, Department of Psychology, University of Cali-fornia, Santa Barbara, California 93106.predictive because the individuals with this attribute may varyin a number of predictively important ways. By contrast, a per-son category representing a group of people who share manyattributes, behaviors, and attitudes should be predictive of thosevery features. In other words, trait categories should be sparsean d nonpredictive, wherea s social stereotype shoul be infor-mative and rich.Our view of trait-defined categories and social stereotypescan be undersood within the context of network approaches toknowledge representation (Anderson & Bower; 1972; Collins Q Higgins, Rholes, & Jones, 1977; Srull & Wyer,1980; 'Wyer & Carlston, 1979). In a network model, conceptualrepresentations, or nodes, are connected to one another bymeans of associative links, including connections between attri-butes and objects (e.g., soft-bed). In this terminology, we sug-gest that traits are linked by attribute-objective links to a num-ber of distinct stereotypes (and to a number of distinct individu-als). By contrast, stereotypes have object-attribute links notonly to traits but to many other types of features, includingovert behaviors and physical characteristics. Retrieval of a ste-reotype provides access to these features for purposes of socialprediction. Retrieval of a trait, on the other hand, is less predic-tive, both because its connections to other attributes are indi-rect and because the stereotypes with which it is linked are di-verse.Support for the notion that social stereotypes carry the bur-den of social prediction comes from a number of studies outsideof the trait domain. For example, it has been suggested that ste-reotypes such as housewife, mother, or temptress are embeddedwithin the category defined by woman (Ashmore & DelBoca,1979; Deaux & Lewis, 1984) and that a category defined onlyby sex may be too inclusive and abstract to be truly effective insocial prediction (e.g., Deaux & Lewis, 1984; Hamilton, 1981;235

Patterns of Somatic Mutations in Immunoglobulin Variable Genes

Abstract: The mechanism responsible for somatic mutation in the variable genes of antibodies is unknown and may differ from previously described mechanisms that produce mutation in DNA. We have analyzed 421 somatic mutations from the rearranged immunoglobulin variable genes of mice to determine (1) if the nucleotide substitutions differ from those generated during meiosis and (2) if the presence of nearby direct and inverted repeated sequences could template mutations around the variable gene. The results reveal a difference in the pattern of substitutions obtained from somatic mutations vs. meiotic mutations. An increased frequency of T:A to C:G transitions and a decreased frequency of mutations involving a G in the somatic mutants compared to the meiotic mutants is indicated. This suggests that the mutational processes responsible for somatic mutation in antibody genes differs from that responsible for mutation during meiosis. An analysis of the local DNA sequences revealed many direct repeats and palindromic sequences that were capable of templating some of the known mutations. Although additional factors may be involved in targeting mutations to the variable gene, mistemplating by nearby repeats may provide a mechanism for the enhancement of somatic mutation.

Circular Vection as a Function of Foreground-Background Relationships

Abstract: It has previously been reported that illusory self-rotation (circular vection) is most effectively induced by the more distant of two moving displays. Experiments are reported in which the relative effectiveness of two superimposed displays in generating circular vection as a function of (i) the separation in depth between them, (ii) their perceived relative distances, and (iii) which display was in the plane of focus was investigated. Circular vection was governed by the motion of the display that was perceived to be the more distant, even when it was actually nearer. However, actual or perceived distance was found to be not the crucial factor in circular vection because even when the distance between the two displays was virtually zero, vection was controlled by the display perceived to be in the background. When the displays were well separated in depth, vection was not affected by whether the near or the far display was in the plane of focus, nor by which display was fixed or pursued by the eyes.

Age differences in coping with chronic illness.

Abstract: We examined the correlation between age and six coping strategies in a sample of 151 middle-aged and older chronically ill adults. Coping strategies included cognitive restructuring, emotional expression, wish fulfilling fantasy, self-blame, information seeking, and threat minimization. Older adults were less likely to use emotional expression or information seeking than were middle-aged adults in their efforts to cope with the illness. These strategies were related to age even when numerous illness characteristics (e.g., physical limitations) were used as control variables. Interaction effects showed that older adults who perceived their illnesses as highly serious were less likely than were others to cope by seeking information, reconstruing their illness as having positive aspects, or engaging in wishfulfilling fantasies, and more likely to cope by simply minimizing the illness's threat. Consideration of related research studies suggests that the age differences in emotional expression may be due to age-related shifts in the types of stresses experienced, whereas the age differences in information seeking may be more strongly linked to cohort phenomena.

Dyadic synchrony and toddler compliance.

Abstract: This study examined the relation between dyadic synchrony and child compliance during the toddler period. Mothers were instructed to teach their children a tea-party script. Interactions were broken into turns, and turns were coded for degree of topic-maintenance. Those turns that maintained the par

Neuromuscular adaptations to training.

Abstract: The purpose of this experiment was to determine whether there is a central adaptation to resistance overload. The right adductor pollicis muscle of each subject was trained with either voluntary (n = 9) or electrically stimulated contractions (n = 7), the contralateral muscle acted as an internal control, and seven other subjects acted as a control group. Training was the same in both groups: 15 contractions at 80% maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), 3 days/wk for 5 wk. Trained muscles in both groups increased MVC by approximately 15% (voluntary, P less than 0.01; stimulated, P less than 0.05). There was a small (9.5%) but significant (P less than 0.05) increase in MVC of the untrained muscles in the voluntary group. MVC did not change in the control group. Maximal electromyogram (EMG) was highly reproducible pre-to posttraining in the control group (r = 0.92, slope = 0.995) and did not change pre- to posttraining in the trained groups. Sensory adaptation to training caused a reduction in force sensation in the stimulated group (P less than 0.05) but not in the voluntary group. Because there was a small increase in MVC of the untrained muscle of the voluntary group (9.5%, P less than 0.05) but not in the stimulated group, it is possible that there is a central motor adaptation, but it is not manifested in increased neural drive (EMG). Moreover, this central adaptation may be responsible for the decrease in force sensation that follows training.

The moral dimension of organizational culture

Abstract: The lack of concrete guidance provided by managerial moral standards and the ambiguity of the expectations they create are discussed in terms of the moral stress experienced by many managers. It is argued that requisite clarity and feelings of obligation with respect to moral standards derive ultimately from public discussion of moral issues within organizations and from shared public agreement about appropriate behavior. Suggestions are made about ways in which the moral dimension of an organization's culture can be more effectively managed. This is the third in a research series of three papers.