Showing papers in "American Journal of Sociology in 1970"
TL;DR: This model contains as special cases a number of previously suggested models, including the structural balance model of Cartwright and Harary, Davis's clustering model, and the ranked-clusters model of Davis and Leinhardt.
Abstract: The authors focus on developing standardized measures for models of structure in interpersonal relations. A theorem is presented which yields expectations and variances for measures based on triads. Random models for these measures are discussed and the procedure is carried out for a model of a partial order. This model contains as special cases a number of previously suggested models, including the structural balance model of Cartwright and Harary, Davis's clustering model, and the ranked-clusters model of Davis and Leinhardt. In an illustrative exmaple, eight sociograms are analyzed and the general model is compared with the special case of ranked clusters.
494Â citations
TL;DR: In this article, the specification and estimation of relationships whose dependent variable is qualitative in nature (such as "yes" or "no") is discussed, and the estimation procedure is generalized least squares.
Abstract: This article is concerned with the specification and estimation of relationships whose dependent variable is qualitative in nature (such as "yes" or "no"). It discusses logit equations with and without interaction, and the estimation procedure is generalized least squares. Part I deals with dependent variables that take only two values, Par II with variables taking more than two values, and part III describes informational measures for the explanatory power of the determining factors. The discussion of more advanced technical matters is contained in various appendixes.
400Â citations
TL;DR: This article found that students in schools with high sex ratios have higher educational aspirations than students in high schools with low sex ratios (i.e., high male-female ratios) in a population of white high school senior in Davidson County, Tennessee.
Abstract: In a contextual analysis it is found that students in schools with high sex ratios have higher educational aspirations than students in schools with low sex ratios (i.e. high male-female ratios) in a population of white high-school senior in Davidson County, Tennessee. The effect of sex-ratio context persists when sex, intelligence, and father's education are controlled. The "consexual effect" is interpreted as a consequence of anticipatory socialization. The contextual interpretation is the exposed as speculative, artifactual, and substantively trivial. Covariance analysis and dummy-variable regression analysis are advocated as more suitable techniques for the measurement and interpretation of differences among groups.
303Â citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigate what theoretically can go wrong when interval scales are assumed, and present a technique (the use of dummy variables) for checking on the results of assuming equal intervals, and finally apply this technique to one set of empirical data.
Abstract: While path analysis has great advantages for bridging the gap between sociological theory and statistical analysis, a major obstacle is the requirement that interval scales be assumed for the data. This problem is attacked, first by investigating what theoretically can go wrong when interval scales are assumed, second by presenting a technique (the use of dummy variables) for checking on the results of assuming equal intervals, and finally by applying this technique to one set of empirical data. The conclusion is that the empirical dangers of assuming equal intervals are not great. In addition to checking on this, the dummy-variable technique can otentially lead to improvements in sociological measurement.
230Â citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors test the hypothesis that the student's peer status and his extracurricular participation in high school will effect both his educational goals and his subsequent college attainments, holding family SES, I.Q., and grades constant.
Abstract: This paper tests the hypothesis that the student's peer status and his extracurricular participation in high school will effect both his educational goals and his subsequent college attainments, holding family SES, I.Q., and grades constant. Perceived status is positively related to goals but negatively related to their fulfillment. Athletes who exaggerate their peer status but do not participate in service or leadership activities especially fail to fulfill their aspirations. The extracurriculum can be major source of success orientations independent of family status and academic performance, but only certain activities foster the skills and attitudes necessary for later success in college.
206Â citations
TL;DR: In this article, the Matthew Effect was generalized to apply to all scientific work and it was shown that the reception of papers of equal quality should be influenced by the location of their authors in the stratification system.
Abstract: The Matthew Effect occurs when scientists receive differential recognition for a particular scientific contribution depending on their location in the stratification system. Merton originally introduced the concept to explain the allocation of credit among authors of multiple discoveries or collaborators. In this paper the concept is generalized to apply to all scientific work. If the Matthew Effect were to operate, the reception of papers of equal quality should be influenced by the location of their authors in the stratification system. To test this gypothesis, data are drawn from several studies of similar design. In each study we control for the number of citations paper received at time 2. This enables us to look at groups of papers that were judged to be roughly equal in quality at time 2. We then see whether there were any differences in the reception of these papers at time 1 depending upon various aspects of the author's location in the stratification system. All the data indicate that assessed q...
164Â citations
TL;DR: The authors found that the social status of a high school independently affects the college-going intentions of its students, using data from a 1955 sample of students in 518 American high schools.
Abstract: In order to extend sociological thinking about socialization in secondary schools, I have tested the contention that the social status of a high school independently affects the college-going intentions of its students, using data from a 1955 sample of students in 518 American high schools. The effect, although weak, is found to be more an effect of the social-status composition than of formal organization of the school. The positive effects of school status are found to mask a negative effect; in schools with students of higher average ability, students of any given ability and status are less likely to have college intentions, presumably because standards of competition rise within the school. When this hidden negative effect is held constant, the positive effect of school status on college intention increases.
143Â citations
TL;DR: The processes and structure of the professions in the United States which act to limit women's participation and achievement within them are identified.
Abstract: Despite impressive extensions in the scope of women's social and political rights, there have been few extensions of sex-linked boundaries in the prestigious, male-dominated professions. This paper identifies the processes and structure of the professions in the United States which act to limit women's participation and achievement within them. Because their sex status is defined within the culture of professions as inappropriate, women find that the institutionalized channels of recruitment and advancement, such as the protege system, are not available to them. Various modes of behavior on the part of women and their colleagues are described which are consequences of women's minority position and which reinforce it. Social changes affecting the traditional structures and opening careers in the professional hierarchy are discussed.
140Â citations
TL;DR: A closer examination of the data reveals that suburban rings do not have an exclusively white population as discussed by the authors, and patterns of residential segregation by race within suburbs are emerging which are similar to those found within central cities.
Abstract: Several studies have indicated that central cities and their suburban rings are coming to have dissimilar racial compositions. A closer examination of the data reveals that suburban rings do not have an exclusively white population. There are now, and always have been, suburban communities of blacks. In recent years, the growth of the Negro suburban population has accelerated. This growth appears concentrated in three types of areas: older suburbs which are experiencing population succession, new developments designed for Negro occupancy, and some improverished suburban enclaves. Despite this growth, city-suburban differences in the proportion of black population are increasing, and patterns of residential segregation by race within suburbs are emerging which are similar to those found within central cities. In the past, city-suburban differences in socioeconomic status were different among whites and Negroes. Unlike whites, the blacks who lived in the suburbs were typically lower in socioeconomic status ...
120Â citations
TL;DR: This paper examined the characteristics of faculty who joined the top twenty departments in six disciplines between 1963 and 1966 in order to evaluate the relative importance of prestige of doctoral origing and scholarly performance in the selection for a position in these departments.
Abstract: This study examines the characteristics of faculty who joined the top twenty departments in six disciplines between 1963 and 1966 in order to evaluate the relative importance of prestige of doctoral origing and scholarly performance in the selection for a position in these departments. While there is a weak relationship between rank of doctorate and rank of hiring department, graduates from departments with the highest ranks are much more likely to be hired by all the top twenty departments. When rank of academic affilation and levels of productivity, citations, and recognition are controlled, the proportion of graduates hired from the highest ranking departments remains the same. Among senior faculty, this proportion diminishes slihgtly when these factors are controlled. These findings suggest that, among younger faculty, prestige of doctorate rather than past performance is used as a predictor of future performance by those who are responsible for faculty recritment.
96Â citations
TL;DR: This paper found that American Negroes who attend integrated public schools have better jobs and higher incomes throughout at least the next three decades of their life, and that the differences in income cannot be accounted for by the higher educational attainment of alumni of integrated schools, or the higher differences in social background.
Abstract: American Negroes who attend integrated public schools have better jobs and higher incomes throughout at least the next three decades of their life. The differences in income cannot be accounted for by the higher educational attainment of alumni of integrated schools, or by the higher differences in social background. The most significant effect of integrated schooling is probably not "educational." It is probably more important that Negroes who attend integrated schools will have more contact with whites as adults, and tend to have more trust in whites than do Negroes from segregated schools. This in turn partially overcomes a crucial barrier to equal opportunity-the fact that information about employment opportunities is spread through types of informal social contacts to which few Negroes have access.
TL;DR: In this paper, the coherence of the behavioral and attitudinal characteristics of individuals who have been exposed to modernizing influences such as urban residence and education was analyzed using data from married Turkish women in Ankara city and four villages.
Abstract: Among the many unresolved issues in the theoretical and empirical study of modernization is that of the unity of the modernizing process. This paper focuses on the coherence of the behavioral and attitudinal characteristics of individuals who have been exposed to modernizing influences such as urban residence and education. Six measures of modernism are used, and the analysis attempts to determine the overlap of each of these measures in the same individual. Using data from married Turkish women in Ankara city and four villages, it appears that each of the measures of modernism represents a distinct behavioral sphere, so that individuals may be modern in one sphere and traditional in another. A common denominator among the measures appears to lie in an "emancipation" complex, consisting of participation in mass media consumption and an egalitarian nuclear-family structure. When dealing with particular subpopulations or specific behavioral spheres, it may be necessary to treat modernism as a multifaceted p...
TL;DR: The use of simple descriptive statistics early in the analysis tends to support the minority-group status hypothesis; however, the use of more rigorous inductive statistical techniques suggests that the hypothesis does not stand when applied to Negro-white fertility differences.
Abstract: It has been common to approach the study of differences in Negro-white fertility from an assimilationalist perspective. A recent paper criticized this approach, suggesting as an alternative a social psychological argument which approaches the differential in terms of the insecurities associated with minority-group status. This explanation suggest that (1) minority-group status exercises an independent effect on fertility, and (2) minority-group status and certain structural factors interact to effect fertility. This paper attempts to test these two aspects of the " minority-group status hypothesis." The use of simple descriptive statistics early in the analysis tends to support the minority-group status hypothesis; however, the use of more rigorous inductive statistical techniques suggests that the hypothesis does not stand when applied to Negro-white fertility differences. It is suggested that the hypothesis be reformulated to take account of the extent of structural assimilation.
TL;DR: The use of matched sampling in experimental and nonexperimental research has been frustrated by the problems of attrition and incomplete matching as mentioned in this paper, and a rarallel set of desiderata became apparent during the computerized construction of two matched samples of black and white college graduates.
Abstract: The use of matched sampling in experimental and nonexperimental research has been frustrated by the problems of attrition and incomplete matching. The amount of attrition and incomplete matching. The amount of attrition of sample size and incomplete matching are shown to be a function of various aspects of the research, including the level of measurement of the matching variables, the sampling situation, the definition of a match, and the means used to construct matches. Several basic and heretofore neglected considerations in the conceptualization of a "match" are discussed. These considerations and a rarallel set of desiderata became apparent during the computerized construction of two matched samples of black and white college graduates. Three approaches to the computerization of matching are described, the last of which-"guaranteed variable caliper matching"- meets the desiderata. We describe our clerical and field procedures from the computerized matching to the final matching based on completed inte...
TL;DR: This paper found that the acceptance of the ideology of opportunity would decrease when its tenets were viewed as specific situations confronting persons of unequal economic rank, and that endorsement of the tenets, expressed either in general or in situational terms, would be withheld more often by lower-income people than by those from higher-income strata.
Abstract: When ideologies are stated as normative and general tenets, they tend to be accepted. This study hypothesized (1) that in an industrial community, the acceptance of the ideology of opportunity would decrease when its tenets were viewed as specific situations confronting persons of unequal economic rank, and (2) that endorsement of the tenets, expressed either in general or in situational terms, would be withheld more often by lower-income people than by those from higher-income strata. Confirmation of the hypotheses suggests that ideological adherence is greatest among those who profit most from the reiteration of the ideolgy.
TL;DR: This essay explores a kind of adaptation, referred to as defensive structuring, that recurs with great regularity among groups that perceive themselves as exposed to environmental stress of long duration with which they cannot cope directly and aggressively.
Abstract: This essay explores a kind of adaptation, referred to as defensive structuring, that recurs with great regularity among groups that perceive themselves as exposed to environmental stress of long duration with which they cannot cope directly and aggressively. Adaptive elements include: authoritarian control over members, exercised by a small specially knowledgeable elite; a high rate o endogamy; cultivation of cultural identity symbols; and early socialization for impulse control. A defensive adaptation emerges from specifiable kinds both of prior structural characteristics and environmental changes in interaction. Examples are provided from cases examined in some depth. The response syndrome is discussed in relation to social and revitalization movements and closed corporate communities.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focus on the relation of type of college attended to graduation as a factor in the educational selection process and find that different types of colleges have different effects for students of different socioeconomic status and intelligence levels.
Abstract: This study focuses on the relation of type of college attended to graduation as a factor in the educational selection process. The analysis is based on a sample of Wisconsin males who where followed up seven years after graduation from high school. Because different types of institutions select different types of students, it is necessary to control relevant student characteristics to determine the existence of contextual effects. A stepwise multiple regression analysis shows that type of college attended explains a small but significant proportion of variance in college graduation beyond what can be accounted for by measured intelligence, rank in high school class, socioeconomic background, and level of occupational aspiration in high school. Other findings are that different types of colleges have different effects for students of different socioeconomic status and intelligence levels and that the selection process into different types of schools has some effect on the overall educational selection process.
TL;DR: Premaritally pregnant couples (PMP)-about 25 percent of those who marry in the Detroit area-are not disproportionately from low status backgrounds, Nevertheless, they are at a substantial economic and educational disadvantage at various stages of married life, greater than that of couples having a child nine to eleven months after marriage.
Abstract: Premaritally pregnant couples (PMP)-about 25 percent of those who marry in the Detroit area-are not disproportionately from low status backgrounds. Nevertheless, they are at a substantial economic and educational disadvantage at various stages of married life, greater than that of couples having a child nine to eleven months after marriage. The young marriage age of PMP couples only partly explains their disadvantage, which is persistent even among those who marry late. Their educational disadvantage is a powerful but not complete determinant of their poor economic position.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present results of an extensive sociological-statistical survey of social stratification in Czechoslovakia in 1967, which reveals four major strata and three large inconsistent groups.
Abstract: This article presents some results of an extensive sociological-statistical survey of social stratification in Czechoslovakia in 1967. The operationalization of major variables is described. The problem of the dominant stratification is solved in favor of the following group of cultural variables: complexity of work, education, style of life. The taxonomic analysis reveals four major strata and three large inconsistent groups. An unexpectedly high "subjective" manifestation of objective stratification is another finding of the research. A preliminary interpretation in terms of relation to types of social stratification leads to the conclusion that relations of the socialist, egalitarian, bureaucratic, and technocratic types played the most significant role at the time when data were collected.
TL;DR: Carey's recent analysis of changing patterns in the popular song (''Changing Courtship Patterns in the Popular Song,\" American Journal of Sociology 74 [May]: 720-3 1) displays a problem long confronted by students of mass society: To what extent can cultural expressions be taken as valid indicators of social behavior or of shifting aspects of mood and national character?
Abstract: James T. Carey's recent analysis of changing patterns in the popular song (\"Changing Courtship Patterns in the Popular Song,\" American Journal of Sociology 74 [May]: 720-3 1) displays a problem long confronted by students of mass society: To what extent can cultural expressions be taken as valid indicators of social behavior or of shifting aspects of mood and national character? His analysis is admirable in that it replicates the earlier study of Horton. It is provocative in that it suggests what many sociologists now feel: that elements of rapid change now characterize the nation's youth. His remarks on the shifting character of the intimate relationship between 1955 and 1966 suggest that rules are being rewritten regarding the nature of the self and its affiliations with others. Notwithstanding these features, I fear that Carey's analysis reveals a number of the problems inherent in any investigation that attempts to relate attitudes to behavior when no direct observation of the involved subjects is undertaken. In this brief note I should like to indicate four problems involved in analyzing aspects of popular culture, be this the study of popular songs, novels, paintings, or poetry. In the main, my remarks are directed to the tradition represented by Carey's work, and not to his study per se. A fundamental problem in such studies stems from the long tradition that has regarded artistic productions as social facts. By regarding such productions as social facts, the analyst is relieved of the burden of demonstrating what meanings these productions have for the artist and his audience. It is too frequently assumed that such meanings can be identified by a capable analyst, independent of the interpretations brought to such works by the artist or his audience. In my judgment, artistic productions must be seen as interactional creations, the meanings of which arise out of the interactions directed to them by the artist and his audience. This is well seen in the long tradition of religious paintings which attempt to recreate the Crucifixion. Each century has produced its own meanings of this event, and these meanings are couched in different s yles of dress, different gestures, and different symbols attached to the Christ figure. In no sense can the meaning of the event or the painting be judged independent of the meanings brought to it by the artist and his time. If artistic productions are seen as interactional creations, a second problem must be recognized. A work of art may not evoke the same response in
TL;DR: A longitudinal analysis of the impact of the Jehovah's Witness movement's millenarian orientation upon its development career is presented in this paper, focusing on long-term modes of adjustment to recurrent prophetic failures, examining the ways in which the sect adapted its collective identity to meet such crises.
Abstract: Since its inception almost a century ago, the Jehovah's Witness movement has been prophesying the impending disintegration of the established social order and its replacement by a millennial kingdom under theocratic rule. This paper presents a longitudinal analysis of the impact of the group's millenarian orientation upon its development career. Attention is focused upon long-term modes of adjustment to recurrent prophetic failures, examining the ways in which the sect has adapted its collective identity to meet such crises. In this perspectives, the sect is seen as an informative case of the process of "self-fulfilling prophecy," operating as a source of both identity confirmation and identity change.
TL;DR: In this article, two alternative hypotheses regarding the consequences of vertical social mobility for membership in voluntary associations are investigated, the socialization hypothesis predicts an adaptive outcome, while the dissociation hypothesis holds that maladaptive responses to mobility obtain.
Abstract: Two alternative hypotheses regarding the consequences of vertical social mobility for membership in voluntary associations are investigated. The socialization hypothesis predicts an adaptive outcome, while the dissociation hypothesis holds that maladaptive responses to mobility obtain. Mean numbers of memberships in voluntary associations are tabulated for respondents cross-classified according to social status of origin and of destination, which reflects social mobility status. The observed means are plotted against hypothetical means obtained from a statistical model of additive effects, and differences are inspected for convergence with or significant departures from the means predicted by the model. The data do not support the dissociation hypothesis, which leads to the conclusion that vertical social mobility exerts little or no effect on affiliations with voluntary associations. The status effects of social origins and destinations account for variations in number of memberships at significant level...
TL;DR: In a large national survey of 1961 college graduates, occupational prestige expectations in 1964 were the strongest predictors of the prestige of the job actually held by a man in 1968.
Abstract: In a large national survey of 1961 college graduates, occupational prestige expectations in 1964 were the strongest predictors of the prestige of the job actually held by a man in 1968. The strongest academic variable was graduate school attendance, followed by college grades, academic ability, and college quality. The actual degree earned between 1964 and 1968 was a rather weak predictor, probably because not all men had yet earned their highest degree. Prestige expectations held at earlier periods were not so closely related to job prestige as the 1964 expectations were, but those held as early as the freshman year in college were of some importance.
TL;DR: In this article, a secondary analysis of a direct measure of popular taste and contrasts in with professional evaluations of the same cultural product is presented, where ratings of the two groups are compared and the snobbism of critics is tested and refuted.
Abstract: Portions of the myths surrounding popular taste are based upon the conjectures and condemnations of professional critics of popular culture. Different pictures of the professional citic have been painted: some characterize the critic as a snob; others, along with Gans, are more likely to characterize the critic as a typocal upper-middle-class American belonging to the upper-middle taste public. This paper reports a secondary analysis of a direct measure of popular taste and contrasts in with professional evaluations of the same cultural product. The data are 5,644 motion pictures rated over a twenty-two-year period by members of a consumer organization and a group of professional movie reviewers. Rating of the two groups are compared, and the snobbism of critics is tested and refuted.
TL;DR: George C. Homans's theory of social exchange exhibits a number of similarities with classical hedonism and is in large measure subject to the same criticisms that have been aimed at hedonistic principles.
Abstract: George C. Homans's theory on social exchange is critically examined and found to have serious chortcomings with regard to its deductive and inductive aspects. An specially prominent shortcoming concerns the tautological character of his concept of "reward," wich make his theory deductively unclear and empirically untestable. Homans's critique against functionalism is also applicable to his own theory. His system exhibits a number of similarities with classical hedonism and is in large measure subject to the same criticisms that have been aimed at hedonistic principles.
TL;DR: This article explored sources of variation in two measures of ethnic-group cohesion and developed a relatively simple model in which formal education plays a dominant role in the breakdown of ethnic group cohesion in the US.
Abstract: Sources of variation in two measures of ethnic-group cohesion are explored. The general model of the breakdown of ethnic-group cohesion suggested by an older literature is not supported. A relatively simple model develops in which formal education plays a dominant role.
TL;DR: In this paper, an empirical evaluation of four themes relating adolescent achievement (operationalized as level of education expectation) to family structure and parental socialization was conducted with data from 1,455 freshman males in seven urban and suburban, public and parochial high schools in the southern tier of New York.
Abstract: With data from 1,455 freshman males in seven urban and suburban, public and parochial high schools in the southern tier of New York, an empirical evaluation of four themes relating adolescent achievement (operationalized as level of education expectation) to family structure and parental socialization rendered tenable the following propositions: (1) level of expectation varies positively with the frequency of several specified parental achievement training practicies; (2) the frequency of such parental practices is not storngly associated with socio-economic status; (3) a larger percentage of respondents reporting "democratic" authority relationships with their parents; and (4) while the magnitude of the positive relationship between expectations and achievement training practices was attenuated in the autocratic vis-a-vis the democratic authority structure, that attenuation was restricted primarily to (a) those achievement training practices termed "Evaluations," (b) the father-son authority structure, a...
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TL;DR: In this paper, a new model for inheritance in intergenerational mobility is developed and related to mover-stayer models of intragenerational mobility, which is made to data for the United States, Britain, and Denmark.
Abstract: A new model for inheritance in intergenerational mobility is developed and related to mover-stayer models of intragenerational mobility. Application is made to data for the United States, Britain, and Denmark. Predictions are required to match observed proportions of men remaining in their origin strata and also the observed distribution of men among destination strata.
TL;DR: In this article, a replication of Goode's earlier third-item test of the religiosity/social class relationship is conducted, using a new third item-the Integration Scale, a variable containing all elements in a member's relationship to a congregation.
Abstract: The conceptual polarity in the sociology of religion-the institutional model of "religiosity" on the one hand and the social-psychological model of "belief" or "faith" on the other-is explored in the relationship between social class and religiosity. A careful empirical examination of this relationship permits a resolution of this polarity by indicating that social class position does not predict religiosity nor does it determine the lements comprising religiosity. Using a national sample of Protestan churchmen, a replication is conducted of Erich Goode's earlier third-item test of the religiosity/social class relationship. The replication fails to substantiate Goode's findings. Using a new third item-the Integration Scale, a variable containing all elements in a member's relationship to a congregation-the relationship between social class and religiosity is again tested. The relationship holds, necessitating the development of a unified theory of social class as the context of meaning for church-linked b...
TL;DR: The authors found that homogeneity in marriage exists for at least three-quarters of the major religious denomiantions, including the various groups within Protestantism, using data from the 1957 Current Population Survey of Religion and from the NORC study of June 1961 college graduates.
Abstract: Data from the 1957 Current Population Survey of Religion and from the NORC study of June 1961 college graduates indicate that denominational homogeneity in marriage exists for at least three-quarters of the major religious denomiantions, including the various groups within Protestantism.