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Showing papers in "American Journal of Sociology in 1999"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors show that the probability of a new alliance between specific organi-zations increases with their interdependence and also with their prior mutual alliances, common third parties, and joint centrality in the alliance network.
Abstract: Organizations enter alliances with each other to access critical re‐sources, but they rely on information from the network of prior alli‐ances to determine with whom to cooperate. These new alliances modify the existing network, prompting an endogenous dynamic be‐tween organizational action and network structure that drives the emergence of interorganizational networks. Testing these ideas on alliances formed in three industries over nine years, this research shows that the probability of a new alliance between specific organi‐zations increases with their interdependence and also with their prior mutual alliances, common third parties, and joint centrality in the alliance network. The differentiation of the emerging network structure, however, mitigates the effect of interdependence and en‐hances the effect of joint centrality on new alliance formation.

2,864 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the sources and consequences of public disorder are assessed based on the videotaping and systematic rating of more than 23,000 street segments in Chicago, and highly reliable scales of social and physical disorder for 196 neighborhoods are constructed.
Abstract: This article assesses the sources and consequences of public disorder. Based on the videotaping and systematic rating of more than 23,000 street segments in Chicago, highly reliable scales of social and physical disorder for 196 neighborhoods are constructed. Census data, police records, and an independent survey of more than 3,500 residents are then integrated to test a theory of collective efficacy and structural constraints. Defined as cohesion among residents combined with shared expectations for the social control of public space, collective efficacy explains lower rates of crime and observed disorder after controlling neighborhood structural characteristics. Collective efficacy is also linked to lower rates of violent crime after accounting for disorder and the reciprocal effects of violence. Contrary to the "broken windows" theory, however, the relationship between public disorder and crime is spurious except perhaps for robbery.

2,304 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors examined the historical contingency of executive power and succession in the higher education publishing industry and found that a shift in logics led to different determinants of executive succession, such as author-editor relationships and internal growth.
Abstract: This article examines the historical contingency of executive power and succession in the higher education publishing industry. We combine interview data with historical analysis to identify how institutional logics changed from an editorial to a market focus. Event history models are used to test for differences in the effects of these two institutional logics on the positional, relational, and economic determinants of executive succession. The quantitative findings indicate that a shift in logics led to different determinants of executive succession. Under an editorial logic, executive attention is directed to author‐editor relationships and internal growth, and executive succession is determined by organization size and structure. Under a market logic, executive attention is directed to issues of resource competition and acquisition growth, and executive succession is determined by the product market and the market for corporate control.

2,045 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper explored the social processes that produce penalties for illegitimate role performance in markets that are significantly mediated by product critics and found that failure to gain reviews by the critics who specialize in a product's intended category reflects confusion over the product's identity and that such illegitimacy should depress demand.
Abstract: This article explores the social processes that produce penalties for illegitimate role performance. It is proposed that such penalties are illuminated in markets that are significantly mediated by product critics. In particular, it is argued that failure to gain reviews by the critics who specialize in a product's intended category reflects confusion over the product's identity and that such illegitimacy should depress demand. The validity of this assertion is tested among public American firms in the stock market over the years 1985–94. It is shown that the stock price of an American firm was discounted to the extent that the firm was not covered by the securities analysts who specialized in its industries. This analysis holds implications for the study of role conformity in both market and nonmarket settings and adds sociological insight to the recent “behavioral” critique of the prevailing “efficient‐market” perspective on capital markets.

1,785 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The small‐world phenomenon, formalized in this article as the coincidence of high local clustering and short global separation, is shown to be a general feature of sparse, decentralized networks that are neither completely ordered nor completely random.
Abstract: The small‐world phenomenon formalized in this article as the coincidence of high local clustering and short global separation, is shown to be a general feature of sparse, decentralized networks that are neither completely ordered nor completely random. Networks of this kind have received little attention, yet they appear to be widespread in the social and natural sciences, as is indicated here by three distinct examples. Furthermore, small admixtures of randomness to an otherwise ordered network can have a dramatic impact on its dynamical, as well as structural, properties‐a feature illustrated by a simple model of disease transmission.

1,410 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a model of social capital that has explicit links to theories of Social capital was proposed and analyzed over a 20-year period, showing that the results do not consistently support Putnam's claim of a decline in social capital.
Abstract: Despite a great deal of interest in a possible decline of social capital in the United States, scholars have not reached a consensus on the trend. This article improves upon previous research by providing a model of social capital that has explicit links to theories of social capital and that analyzes multiple indicators of social capital over a 20‐year period. The results do not consistently support Putnam's claim of a decline in social capital, showing instead some decline in a general measure of social capital, a decline in trust in individuals, no general decline in trust in institutions, and no decline in associations.

1,332 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors address a paradox: on the one hand, environmental sociology, as currently developed, is closely associated with the thesis that the classical sociological tradition is devoid of systematic insights into environmental problems; on the other hand, evidence of crucial classical contributions in this area, particularly in Marx, but also in Weber, Durkheim and others, is too abundant to be convincingly denied.
Abstract: This article addresses a paradox: on the one hand, environmental sociology, as currently developed, is closely associated with the thesis that the classical sociological tradition is devoid of systematic insights into environmental problems; on the other hand, evidence of crucial classical contributions in this area, particularly in Marx, but also in Weber, Durkheim, and others, is too abundant to be convincingly denied. The nature of this paradox, its origins, and the means of transcending it are illustrated primarily through an analysis of Marx's theory of metabolic rift, which, it is contended, offers important classical foundations for environmental sociology.

802 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the mutual influence of mental disorders and educational attainment, a core element of low socioeconomic status (SES), and found that each disorder has a unique relationship with SES, highlighting the need for greater consideration of antisocial disorders in the status attainment process.
Abstract: This article examines low socioeconomic status (SES) as both a cause and a consequence of mental illnesses by investigating the mutual influence of mental disorders and educational attainment, a core element of SES. The analyses are based on a longitudinal panel design and focus on four disorders: anxiety, depression, antisocial disorder, and attention deficit disorder. The article shows that each disorder has a unique relationship with SES, highlighting the need for greater consideration of antisocial disorders in the status attainment process and for further theoretical development in the sociology of mental disorders to account for disorder-specific relations with SES.

560 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article proposed a model of endogeneity among organizations, the professions, and legal institutions, which suggests that organizations and the professions strive to construct rational responses to law, enabled by "rational myths" or stories about appropriate solutions that are themselves modeled after the public legal order.
Abstract: Most accounts of organizations and law treat law as largely exogenous and emphasize organizations' responses to law. This study proposes a model of endogeneity among organizations, the professions, and legal institutions. It suggests that organizations and the professions strive to construct rational responses to law, enabled by "rational myths" or stories about appropriate solutions that are themselves modeled after the public legal order. Courts, in turn, recognize and legitimate organizational structures that mimic the legal form, thus conferring legal and market benefits upon organizational structures that began as gestures of compliance. Thus, market rationality can follow from rationalized myths: the professions promote a particular compliance strategy, organizations adopt this strategy to reduce costs and symbolize compliance, and courts adjust judicial constructions of fairness to include these emerging organizational practices. To illustrate this model, a case study of equal employment opportunit...

504 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a critique of framing perspectives on collective action discourse and an alternative dialogic approach is presented, where the authors argue that collective action is a joint product of actors' agency and discourse dynamics, including its multivocal nature.
Abstract: This article offers a critique of framing perspectives on collective action discourse and an alternative dialogic approach. The argument set forth is that the latter sees collective action discourse as a joint product of actors' agency and discourse dynamics, including its multivocal nature. Such discourse is a joint product of challengers' rational actions and the constraints of the discursive field. Challengers seek to appropriate and subvert the dominant discourses that legitimate power, creating discursive repertoires. To illustrate this, the contentious actions of English cotton spinners in the 1820s and 1830s are analyzed. The spinners produced a discursive repertoire drawing on mill owners' dominant discourses.

458 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors found that 382 public events in police records for one year in a small U.S. city, 45% convey a message, 14% involve social conflict, and 13% are standard protest event forms.
Abstract: Protest events occur against the backdrop of public life. Of 382 public events in police records for one year in a small U.S. city, 45% convey a message, 14% involve social conflict, and 13% are standard protest event forms. Local newspapers covered 32% of all events, favoring events that were large, involved conflict, were sponsored by business groups, and occurred in central locations. The more liberal paper also favored rallies and events sponsored by national social movement organizations (SMOs) or recreational groups. Discussion centers on the ways these factors shape the content of the public sphere.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that the U.S. state made a large and coercive intervention into the labor market through the expansion of the penal system and that the impact of incarceration on unemployment has two conflicting dynamics: in the short run, incarceration lowers conventional unemployment measures by removing able-bodied, working-age men from labor force counts.
Abstract: Comparative research contrasts the corporatist welfare states of Europe with the unregulated U.S. labor market to explain low rates of U.S. unemployment in the 1980s and 1990s. In contrast, this article argues that the U.S. state made a large and coercive intervention into the labor market through the expansion of the penal system. The impact of incarceration on unemployment has two conflicting dynamics. In the short run, U.S. incarceration lowers conventional unemployment measures by removing able‐bodied, working‐age men from labor force counts. In the long run, social survey data show that incarceration raises unemployment by reducing the job prospects of ex‐convicts. Strong U.S. employment performance in the 1980s and 1990s has thus depended in part on a high and increasing incarceration rate.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a set of hypotheses are derived and tested with data on the collective claims making of migrants and ethnic minorities in two European countries, Britain and Germany, for the period 1990-95.
Abstract: As important aspects of purported tendencies toward globalization and pluralization, recent immigration waves and the resulting presence of culturally different ethnic minorities are often seen as fundamentally challenging liberal nation-states and traditional models of citizenship. According to this perspective, migrants and ethnic minorities contribute through their claims making both to the external erosion of sovereignty (the postnational challenge), and to the internal cultural differentiation of liberal nation-states (the multicultural challenge). In contrast, alternative theoretical approaches have emphasized the continuing relevance of the nation-state in the processes of inclusion and exclusion of minorities. From these three perspectives on citizenship (postnational, multicultural, and national) a set of hypotheses is derived and tested with data on the collective claims making of migrants and ethnic minorities in two European countries, Britain and Germany, for the period 1990–95. The data show very little support for the postnational approach, mixed results regarding the multicultural model, and strong support for the continuing relevance of national models of citizenship. Counter to claims that national modes of migrant incorporation have become insignificant, the evidence shows that migrant claims making is still forged in the image of a particular nation-state.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors consider both structural and strategic influences on collective action and show that strong and weak links are better for revolt when thresholds are low, and strong links were better when thresholds were high.
Abstract: This article considers both structural and strategic influences on collective action. Each person in a group wants to participate only if the total number taking part is at least her threshold; people use a network to communicate their thresholds. People are strategically rational in that they are completely rational and also take into account that others are completely rational. The model shows first that network position is much more important in influencing the revolt of people with low thresholds than people with high thresholds. Second, it shows that strong links are better for revolt when thresholds are low, and weak links are better when thresholds are high. Finally, the model generalizes the threshold models of Schelling (1978) and Granovetter (1978) and shows that their findings that revolt is very sensitive to the thresholds of people “early” in the process depends heavily on the assumption that communication is never reciprocal.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article employed a common general formula for inequality indexes to answer several basic questions about intercountry income inequality in recent decades: Has inequality across nations increased or declined (and why have earlier studies yielded mixed results)? Have different rates of population growth played a significant role in the trend? Have large nations dominated the trend; are the results robust over different inequality measures and different income series?
Abstract: This article employs a common general formula for inequality indexes to answer several basic questions about intercountry income inequality in recent decades: Has inequality across nations increased or declined (and why have earlier studies yielded mixed results)? Have different rates of population growth played a significant role in the trend? Have large nations dominated the trend? Are the results robust over different inequality measures and different income series? Two findings stand out. First, different rates of population growth in rich and poor nations played the predominant role in determining change in the distribution of per capita income across nations. Second, the centuries‐old trend of rising inequality leveled off from 1960 to 1989. The dependency theory thesis of a polarizing world system receives no support.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The effect of alternative family structures on children's educational and occupational success has been constant over the past 30 years as discussed by the authors, and the findings are most consistent with an evolutionary view of parental investment.
Abstract: The effect of alternative family structures on children's educational and occupational success has been constant over the past 30 years. Higher rates of unemployment and lower‐status occupational positions could account for the negative effect of single‐mother families on children's attainment throughout the period. Children from single‐father families and stepfamilies have consistently had lower attainments than children from both two‐biological‐parent and single‐mother families. The influence of many other dimensions of children's family background declined from the 1960s to the 1980s but has declined no further since. Among six candidate theoretical frameworks, the findings are most consistent with an evolutionary view of parental investment.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors explored how the separation of powers shapes employer response to law and found that an administrative ruling requiring employers with disability leave programs to permit maternity leave, which employers successfully fought in the courts, was at least as effective as the identical congressional statute that replaced it.
Abstract: By the time Congress passed the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, many employers had created maternity leave programs. Analysts argue that they did so in response to the feminization of the workforce. This study charts the spread of maternity leave policies between 1955 and 1985 in a sample of 279 organizations. Sex discrimination law played a key role in the rise of maternity leave policies. Building on neoinstitutional theory, this article explores how the separation of powers shapes employer response to law. Details of the law are often specified in administrative rulings‐the weakest link in the law because they can be overturned by the courts and by Congress. Yet an administrative ruling requiring employers with disability leave programs to permit maternity leave, which employers successfully fought in the courts, was at least as effective as the identical congressional statute that replaced it. In the American context, the legal vulnerability of administrative rulings can draw attention to them, ...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article examined the temporal patterning of retirement and found that changes over the past few decades undermined the regularity in retirement timing that was a product of the convergence of diverse institutional features, anchored by a large core of men on traditional career tracks.
Abstract: This article draws on life history data of the cohorts of recent US retirees to examine the temporal patterning of retirement Three major dimensions‐‐historical context, social heterogeneity, and, most important, biographical pacing, measured by cohort, gender, and career pathway, respectively‐‐operate simultaneously, yet unevenly, to affect various aspects of the retirement process Findings suggest that changes over the past few decades have undermined the regularity in retirement timing that was a product of the convergence of diverse institutional features, anchored by a large core of men on traditional career tracks Focusing on retirement, our model underscores the multiplex nature of the temporal structuring of the life course

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, an integrated analysis of social movement organizational change and survival based on the activities of national women's and racial minority organizations during 1955•••85 is presented, showing that core transitions in social change strategies are influenced in contradictory ways by the social movement environment.
Abstract: This article provides an integrated analysis of social movement organizational change and survival based on the activities of national women's and racial minority organizations during 1955‐‐85. Results demonstrate that core transitions in social change strategies are influenced in contradictory ways by the social movement environment. Older and more formalized movement organizations are more flexible, but the kinds of changes undertaken are not necessarily conservative. The benefits of transformation are limited, however, and organizational change increases the risk of failure with little evidence of a declining effect over time. In the long run, this shapes the organizational system in ways that potentially improve its legitimacy but may also limit the development of an infrastructure for future mobilization.

Journal ArticleDOI
James Mahoney1
TL;DR: The authors presented an evaluation of the strengths and limitations of three different strategies of causal assessment: nominal, ordinal, and narrative, focusing on recent works of comparative history, and discussed the trade-offs involved in combining two or more strategies.
Abstract: Macrocausal analysis is often characterized as following only a single strategy of causal inference. In fact, however, at least three different techniques are used: nominal, ordinal, and narrative strategies of causal assessment. Focusing on recent works of comparative history, this article presents an evaluation of the strengths and limitations of each strategy. In addition, it considers the trade‐offs involved in combining two or more strategies. Finally, the article discusses the role of scholarly tastes and skills, the research question, and ongoing research cycles in shaping the methodological approach selected by investigators.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article examined the objective and subjective facets of female finance-executive careers and used optimal matching and qualitative analyses to show how the careers are shaped by workplace structures and by the early 1970s enforcement of women's employment rights.
Abstract: This article examines the objective and subjective facets of female finance‐executive careers. Optimal matching and qualitative analyses are used to show how the careers are shaped by workplace structures and by the early 1970s enforcement of women's employment rights. Changing opportunity structures in turn shaped respondents' perspectives. Many younger respondents were unaware that their mobility was partly due to the creative action of their female predecessors and took personal credit for their own rapid progress. Finally, it appears that as women have experienced more freedom in pursuing finance careers, their career trajectories have become more rigid.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors studied the determinants of disaggregated interracial killing rates in 165 U.S. cities by testing economic, political, and social control accounts, and found that cities with a black mayor and greater economic competition between the races have more white killings of blacks.
Abstract: What factors lead to interracial killings? Because racial conflict explanations have been overlooked in the previous literature, this article studies the determinants of disaggregated interracial killing rates in 165 U.S. cities by testing economic, political, and social control accounts. After holding the probability of interracial contacts and the total murder rate constant, the results show that cities with a black mayor and greater economic competition between the races have more white killings of blacks. The same hypotheses explain black killings of whites, but these killings are less likely in cities with black mayors. Police department size does not explain white killings of blacks, but cities with larger departments have fewer black killings of whites. The findings suggest that economic rivalries and contests for political influence lead to greater interracial violence.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the Trivers-Willard hypothesis is tested using two nationally representative surveys of American adolescents and their parents, and little evidence of the predicted parental investment behaviors is found.
Abstract: While some dismiss sociobiological theories as untestable, post hoc explanations, this article argues that sociologists should instead increase their efforts to identify and engage those theories that have novel empirical implications. Regarding parental investment, Triv‐ers and Willard use Darwinian reasoning to hypothesize that high‐status parents favor sons over daughters and that low‐status parents favor daughters over sons. The application of this hypothesis to contemporary societies has been widely accepted by sociobiolo‐gists, although it has received little actual empirical scrutiny. The Trivers‐Willard hypothesis is tested in this study using two nationally representative surveys of American adolescents and their parents. Across several different measures of investment, little evidence of the predicted parental investment behaviors is found. This article seeks not only to contribute to settling the empirical point at issue but also to encourage a renewed and empirically focused dialogue between s...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a new explanation for generalist and specialist organizations' coexistence in crowded markets is given, which relates to organizational ecology's resource partitioning theory, which explains market histories with scale economies and crowding, and shows that some main predictions of this theory can be restated in terms of structural properties of the N-dimensional Euclidean space.
Abstract: This article gives a new explanation for generalist and specialist organizations' coexistence in crowded markets. It addresses organizational ecology's resource-partitioning theory, which explains market histories with scale economies and crowding, and it shows that some main predictions of this theory can be restated in terms of structural properties of the N-dimensional Euclidean space. As resource-space dimensionality increases, the changing niche configurations open opportunities for specialists. The proposed approach draws upon the sphere-packing problem in geometry. The model also explains new observations, and its findings apply to a range of crowding and network models in sociology.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper explored the applicability of state-centered theories of revolution to the phenomena of prison riots and found that such riots have numerous features in common with revolutions, including prior administrative crises, elite (guard) alienation and divisions, and a widespread popular (prisoner) sense of injustice and grievances regarding (prison) administration actions (not just toward imprisonment per se).
Abstract: Prisons have long been used as a testing ground for social theory. This article explores the applicability of state‐centered theories of revolution to the phenomena of prison riots. Prison riots are found to have numerous features in common with revolutions, including prior administrative crises, elite (guard) alienation and divisions, and a widespread popular (prisoner) sense of injustice and grievances regarding (prison) administration actions (not just toward imprisonment per se). The state‐centered theory provides a better “fit” to prison riots than current functionalist, rising expectation, or management theories.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: These changes in youth homicide rates are associated with two cohort characteristics that are theoretically linked to criminality: relative size of cohorts and the percentage of cohort members born to unwed mothers, which can explain fluctuations in homicide arrest rates before the recent upturn.
Abstract: In the past decade, young people in the United States have been two to three times more likely than in the two previous decades to commit homicides, while those 25 years and older have been less likely to commit homicides than were members of their age groups in the earlier time period. These changes in youth homicide rates are associated with two cohort characteristics that are theoretically linked to criminality: relative size of cohorts and the percentage of cohort members born to unwed mothers. These effects persist throughout the life span, are independent of age and historical period, and can explain fluctuations in homicide arrest rates before the recent upturn.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper used ethnography and conversation analysis to pinpoint what "goes wrong" when certain so-called street people "harass" pas-sersby, and found that these acts of "interactional vandalism" both reflect and contribute to the larger structural conditions shaping the local scene.
Abstract: This article uses ethnography and conversation analysis to pinpoint what “goes wrong” when certain so‐called street people “harass” pas‐sersby. The technical properties of sidewalk encounters between particular black street men and middle‐class white female residents of Greenwich Village are compared with interactions expected from studies of other conversation situations. The men attempt to initiate conversations and to deal with efforts to close them in ways that betray the practical ethics fundamental to all social interaction. In this way they undermine the requisites not just for “urbanism as a way of life,” but the bases for how sociability generally proceeds. These acts of “interactional vandalism” both reflect and contribute to the larger structural conditions shaping the local scene.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors examines three different theoretical conceptions of associationalism with respect to cross-sectional data on municipal expenditure and voter participation in American cities for the fiscal year 1880: a "neo-Tocquevillian" perspective, which generally views asociational activity as an alternative to government intervention; a "social movements" viewpoint, which views associations as interest groups mobilized to stimulate government action in areas germane to their specific pursuits; and a social capital viewpoint, who is neutral with respectto the impact of association on the size of government but views associational activities as a
Abstract: This article examines three different theoretical conceptions of asso‐ciationalism with respect to cross‐sectional data on municipal expenditure and voter participation in American cities for the fiscal year 1880: a “neo‐Tocquevillian” perspective, which generally views as‐sociational activity as an alternative to government intervention; a “social movements” perspective, which views associations as interest groups mobilized to stimulate government action in areas germane to their specific pursuits; and a “social capital” perspective, which is neutral with respect to the impact of associationalism on the size of government but views associational activity as a stimulus to greater political participation. The analysis provides little support for the social capital and neo‐Tocquevillian perspectives but strong support for the social movements notion that one of the predominant political influences of associationalism, at least in late 19th‐century American cities, was that of interest group mobilization in ...

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors introduce the concept of family integration to describe the way in which family social organization affects individuals and hypothesize that when parents are integrated into the family, it benefits their children's development of self.
Abstract: In this article, we introduce the concept of family integration to describe the way in which family social organization affects individuals. We hypothesize that when parents are integrated into the family, it benefits their children's development of self. Using panel data, we test three mechanisms of parental family integration‐‐activities within the home, family social networks, and family support networks. The results show that parental family integration early in a child's life has positive effects on the child's self‐esteem in early adulthood, 23 years later. These findings provide important new insights into both the social processes affecting self‐esteem and the long‐term consequences of various dimensions of family integration.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors make a distinction between universal and historically conditional theory through a contrast between work by such leaders of the revived comparative historical tradition as Charles Tilly, Theda Skocpol, and Immanuel Wallerstein and selected works by second-generation comparative historical sociologists.
Abstract: Recent debates on comparative historical method have focused on three issues: (1) narrative and conjuncture, (2) the logic of comparison, and (3) the limits of theoretical generalization. The present article attempts to resolve some of the issues raised in these debates by developing a distinction between universal and historically conditional theory through a contrast between work by such leaders of the revived comparative historical tradition as Charles Tilly, Theda Skocpol, and Immanuel Wallerstein and selected works by second‐generation comparative historical sociologists. The conditional theories of the second generation incorporate narrative and conjunctural temporality, theory‐driven comparison, and historically conditional generalization that were not emphasized in the universalizing theories and comparisons of the first generation.