Showing papers in "American Psychologist in 1991"
TL;DR: The authors examined what a theory of emotion must do and basic issues that it must address, including definitional issues, whether or not physiological activity should be a defining attribute, categorical versus dimensional strategies, the reconciliation of biological universals with sociocultural sources of variability, and a classification of the emotions.
Abstract: The 2 main tasks of this article are 1st, to examine what a theory of emotion must do and basic issues that it must address. These include definitional issues, whether or not physiological activity should be a defining attribute, categorical versus dimensional strategies, the reconciliation of biological universals with sociocultural sources of variability, and a classification of the emotions. The 2nd main task is to apply an analysis of appraisal patterns and the core relational themes that they produce to a number of commonly identified emotions. Anger, anxiety, sadness, and pride (to include 1 positive emotion) are used as illustrations. The purpose is to show the capability of a cognitive-motivational-relational theory to explain and predict the emotions. The role of coping in emotion is also discussed, and the article ends with a response to criticisms of a phenomenological, folk-theory outlook.
1,871Â citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a brief historical account of the initially separate but compatible approaches that eventually merged in the partnership, and how their contributions have intertwined in the course of developing an ethologically oriented theory of attachment and a body of research that has both stemmed from the theory and served to extend and elaborate it.
Abstract: attachment that we have jointly developed is that it is an ethological approach to personality development. We have had a long and happy partnership in pursuing this approach. In this article we wish to give a brief historical account of the initially separate but compatible approaches that eventually merged in the partnership, and how our contributions have intertwined in the course of developing an ethologically oriented theory of attachment and a body of research that has both stemmed from the theory and served to extend and elaborate it.
1,451Â citations
TL;DR: This paper examined Spinoza's alternative suggestion that acceptance of an idea is part of the automatic comprehension of that idea and the rejection of the idea occurs subsequent to, and more effortfully than, its acceptance.
Abstract: Is there a difference between believing and merely understanding an idea?Descartes thought so. He considered the acceptance and rejection of an idea to be alternative outcomes of an effortful assessment process that occurs subsequent to the automatic comprehension of that idea. This article examined Spinoza's alternative suggestion that (a) the acceptance of an idea is part of the automatic comprehension of that idea and (b) the rejection of an idea occurs subsequent to, and more effortfully than, its acceptance. In this view, the mental representation of abstract ideas is quite similar to the mental representation of physical objects: People believe in the ideas they comprehend, as quickly and automatically as they believe in the objects they see. Research in social and cognitive psychology suggests that Spinoza's model may be a more accurate account of human belief than is that of Descartes.
1,300Â citations
TL;DR: The role of cognition and motivation in emotion, the ways meaning is generated, unconscious appraising, and the implications of this way of thinking for life-span development are addressed in this paper.
Abstract: The role of cognition--and to some extent motivation--in emotion, the ways meaning is generated, unconscious appraising, and the implications of this way of thinking for life-span development are addressed. It is argued that appraisal is a necessary as well as sufficient cause of emotion and that knowledge is necessary but not sufficient. This position is examined in light of what is known about emotions in infants and young children, the effects of drugs on acute emotions and moods, and recent patterns of thought about the brain in emotions. The discussion of how meaning is generated is the core of the article. Automatic processing without awareness is contrasted with deliberate and conscious processing, and the concept of resonance between an animal's needs and what is encountered in the environment is examined. The idea that there is more than one way meaning is achieved strengthens and enriches the case for the role of appraisal in emotion and allows the consideration of what is meant by unconscious and preconscious appraisal and the examination of how they might work.
1,183Â citations
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TL;DR: The ability to detect lying was evaluated in 509 people including law-enforcement personnel, such as members of the U.S. Secret Service, Central Intelligence Agency, Federal Bureau of Investigation, National Security Agency, Drug Enforcement Agency, California police and judges, as well as psychiatrists, college students, and working adults.
Abstract: The ability to detect lying was evaluated in 509 people including law-enforcement personnel, such as members of the US Secret Service, Central Intelligence Agency, Federal Bureau of Investigation, National Security Agency, Drug Enforcement Agency, California police and judges, as well as psychiatrists, college students, and working adults A videotape showed 10 people who were either lying or telling the truth in describing their feelings Only the Secret Service performed better than chance, and they were significantly more accurate than all of the other groups When occupational group was disregarded, it was found that those who were accurate apparently used different behavioral clues and had different skills than those who were inaccurate
830Â citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a rapidly expanding research literature on acculturation has accompanied the growth of international migrations, and the authors identify points of convergence and new directions for research, as well as problems and limitations.
Abstract: Acculturation, the process whereby immigrants change their behavior and attitudes toward those of the host society, is a fundamental part of migration-induced adaptations to new sociocultural environments. A rapidly expanding research literature on acculturation has accompanied the growth of international migrations. In response to the need to integrate the growing literature on acculturation and mental health status among Hispanics in the United States, and to identify points of convergence and new directions for research, 30 publications were examined. Points of convergence are identified, as are problems and limitations. The research needs new directions, proceeding from but not constricted by the assumptions and procedures in the work already done.
803Â citations
TL;DR: Research suggesting that refugees are an at-risk population, making them especially suitable for public health interventions, is summarized, given its importance to prevention in refugee mental health.
Abstract: Primary prevention in refugee mental health requires information from clinical, health, and cross-cultural psychology. Primary prevention's roots are in public health, which is distinguished by a communitywide perspective for addressing mental health concerns. This article summarizes research suggesting that refugees are an at-risk population, making them especially suitable for public health interventions. Research on stress and acculturation is highlighted, given its importance to prevention in refugee mental health. The opportunities for primary prevention programs and policies at 3 levels (i.e., local community, national, and international) are illustrated with case examples from both the United States and Canada. Prevention at the international level is highlighted by a World Health Organization Mental Health Mission to camps on the Thai-Cambodian border.
615Â citations
TL;DR: The authors characterizes these assumptions and the research paradigms based on them and offers an account of how they arise, rooted in the psychological and sociological contexts within which different researchers function.
Abstract: Eliciting people's values is a central pursuit in many areas of the social sciences, including survey research, attitude research, economics, and behavior decision theory. These disciplines differ considerably in the core assumptions they make about the nature of the values that are available for elicitation. These assumptions lead to very different methodological concerns and interpretations, as well as to different risks of reading too much or too little into people's responses. The analysis here characterizes these assumptions and the research paradigms based on them. It also offers an account of how they arise, rooted in the psychological and sociological contexts within which different researchers function.
575Â citations
TL;DR: The microgenetic method is an approach that can yield detailed data about particular changes that illuminate both qualitative and quantitative aspects of change, indicate the conditions under which changes occur, and yield otherwise unobtainable information about short-lived transition strategies.
Abstract: Progress in understanding cognitive developmental change mechanisms requires methods that yield detailed data about particular changes. The microgenetic method is an approach that can yield such data. It involves (a) observations of individual children throughout the period of the change, (b) a high density of observations relative to the rate of change within that period, and (c) intensive trial-by-trial analyses intended to infer the processes that gave rise to the change. This approach can illuminate both qualitative and quantitative aspects of change, indicate the conditions under which changes occur, and yield otherwise unobtainable information about short-lived transition strategies. The cost in time and effort of such studies is often high, but the value of the information about change can more than justify the cost.
538Â citations
TL;DR: The cognitive therapy of depression has led to the utilization of specific cognitive strategies based on the specific conceptualizations of a given disorder to a wide variety of disorders, which supports the concept of cognitive specificity.
Abstract: Several lines of investigation have evolved from the initial cognitive model of depression and other disorders. A large number of studies have tested the cognitive model using both clinical and laboratory-based strategies. In general, studies that most closely approximate the clinical conditions from which the theory was derived are supportive of the cognitive model of depression. Studies of anxiety and panic, although fewer, generally support the cognitive model of anxiety and panic. The application to the treatment of clinical problems has been promising and supports the concept of cognitive specificity. The cognitive therapy of depression has led to the utilization of specific cognitive strategies based on the specific conceptualizations of a given disorder to a wide variety of disorders. Study of abnormal reactions has also provided clues to the cognitive structure of normal reactions.
526Â citations
TL;DR: It is demonstrated that most subjects with a severe mental disorder also meet criteria for a substance abuse or antisocial personality disorder, and these findings suggest several changes in public policy regarding health care delivery in correctional settings and for the general population.
Abstract: Studies have demonstrated that police often arrest the mentally ill when treatment alternatives would be preferable but are unavailable. Thus, jails may contain disproportionate numbers of severely mentally ill persons who have co-occurring disorders. Data on the co-occurrence of severe mental disorder, substance abuse, and antisocial personality disorders were gathered from 728 randomly selected male urban jail detainees. Using difference of proportions tests and loglinear analysis, the authors demonstrated that most subjects with a severe mental disorder (schizophrenia or a major affective disorder) also meet criteria for a substance abuse or antisocial personality disorder. These findings suggest several changes in public policy regarding health care delivery in correctional settings and for the general population.
TL;DR: The authors treated human thinking as an instance of story elaboration, which offers numerous implications for many domains of psychological theory, research, and practice, such as psychotherapy, psychotherapy as exercises in story repair, and identity as an issue of life-story construction.
Abstract: Narrative (or storytelling) approaches to understanding human action have recently become more popular in several areas of psychology. Treating human thinking as instances of story elaboration offers numerous implications for many domains of psychological theory, research, and practice. For example, several instances of cultural diversity take on a different hue when viewed from a narrative perspective. Finally, several authors (e.g., Bruner, 1986; Howard, 1989; Mair, 1989; McAdams, 1985; Polkinghorne, 1988; Sarbin, 1986) see the development of identity as an issue of life-story construction; psychopathology as instances of life stories gone awry; and psychotherapy as exercises in story repair.
TL;DR: Current research on the prevalence of alcohol, drug, and mental (ADM) disorders and the characteristics of homeless substance abusers and persons with mental illness and methodological problems in homelessness research are reviewed.
Abstract: This article describes recent research on the prevalence of alcohol, drug, and mental (ADM) disorders and the characteristics of homeless substance abusers and persons with mental illness. Methodological problems in homelessness research are reviewed, particularly in relation to definitions of homelessness and sampling- and case-ascertainment methods. Prevalence rates of ADM disorders are much higher in homeless groups than in the general population. As is true of homeless people in general, homeless substance abusers and mentally ill persons are characterized by extreme poverty; underutilization of public entitlements; isolation from family, friends, and other support networks; frequent contact with correctional agencies; and poor general health. Knowledge of these disadvantages should be used to advocate for better services to prevent homelessness and support homeless people.
TL;DR: A model for the development of emotion that involves an initial decision of approach or withdraw, which results in motor programs, including facial expression, that facilitate either approach or withdrawal is presented.
Abstract: Recent studies suggest that an initial component involving stimulus evaluation may precede subsequent steps in the generation of emotion. This article presents a model for the development of emotion that involves an initial decision of approach or withdrawal, which results in motor programs, including facial expression, that facilitate either approach or withdrawal. With development, more complex emotions arise, as products of these basic initial responses and interaction with the environment. Evidence is presented that suggests that there are brain asymmetries (as measured by scalp recorded EEG activity) localized to the frontal region that are associated with the generation of emotion in infants. Variability in the pattern of EEG asymmetry between infants may be an important marker of differences in temperament.
TL;DR: On the basis of field work in 5 war zones, the article points to the importance of adult-led "processing" of the young child's experience to his or her psychological coping and moral development.
Abstract: Developmental challenges faced by children growing up in situations of chronic danger linked to community violence and communal conflict are reviewed. The concept of post-traumatic stress disorder is expanded to include situations of chronic and on-going traumatic stress associated with dangerous environments--war zones and inner city neighborhoods plagued by violence and crime. Of particular importance is the impact of chronic stress and danger on the child's world view, the child's social map, and the child's moral development. On the basis of field work in 5 war zones, the article points to the importance of adult-led "processing" of the young child's experience to his or her psychological coping and moral development. Some of the contradictions operating in such environments are explored--for example, that "fanatical" ideology may provide short-term support for adults and children but also may serve to prolong communal conflict, impede the necessary processing of experience, and increase vulnerability in the long run.
TL;DR: A decade of work by Bergin and others is reviewed and synthesized concerning two broad issues: (a) the role of values in psychotherapy and (b) the relation of religion to mental health as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: A decade of work by Bergin and others is reviewed and synthesized concerning two broad issues: (a) the role of values in psychotherapy and (b) the relation of religion to mental health. Trends have changed and there is now more professional support for addressing values issues in treatment. There is also more openness to the healthy potentialities of religious involvement, and therapists themselves manifest a new level of personal interest in such matters. Cautions and guidelines for dealing with such issues are considered in both empirical and clinical terms. The multifactorial nature of religion is documented, and healthy and unhealthy ways of being religious are described. Suggestions are given for including education in values and religious issues in the training of clinicians so that the vast population of religious clientele may be better served.
TL;DR: A social action view emphasizes social interdependence and interaction in personal control of health-endangering behavior and proposes mechanisms by which environmental structures influence cognitive action schemas, self-goals, and problem-solving activities critical to sustained behavioral change.
Abstract: Many illnesses can be prevented or limited by altering personal behavior, and public health planners have turned to psychology for guidance in fostering self-protective activity. A social theory of personal action provides an integrative framework for applying psychology to public health, disclosing gaps in our current understanding of self-regulation, and generating guidelines for improving health promotion at the population level. A social action view emphasizes social interdependence and interaction in personal control of health-endangering behavior and proposes mechanisms by which environmental structures influence cognitive action schemas, self-goals, and problem-solving activities critical to sustained behavioral change. Social action theory clarifies relationships between social and personal empowerment and helps explain stages of self-change.
TL;DR: The display of high versus low levels of both motor activity and crying to unfamiliar in 4-month-old infants predicts these 2 temperamental profiles in the 2nd year, which implies, but does not prove, that variation in the excitability of those brain areas that mediate motorActivity and crying participates in the actualization of the temperamental categories called inhibited and uninhibited to the unfamiliar.
Abstract: The initial dispositions to approach or to avoid unfamiliar events are 2 temperamental characteristics of children--among the many that have been described--that appear to be moderately stable over time and associated with distinct, physiological profiles that may be under partial genetic control. The display of high versus low levels of both motor activity and crying to unfamiliar in 4-month-old infants predicts these 2 temperamental profiles in the 2nd year. This fact implies, but does not prove, that variation in the excitability of those brain areas that mediate motor activity and crying participates in the actualization of the temperamental categories called inhibited and uninhibited to the unfamiliar.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that homelessness itself is a risk factor for emotional disorder and use the construct of psychological trauma, focusing on social disaffiliation and learned helplessness, to understand the potential effects of homelessness.
Abstract: Most mental health literature on homelessness has focused on characteristics that may be risk factors for homelessness. The authors of this article argue that homelessness itself is a risk factor for emotional disorder and use the construct of psychological trauma--focusing on social disaffiliation and learned helplessness--to understand the potential effects of homelessness. Psychological trauma is likely among homeless individuals and families for three reasons. (a) The sudden or gradual loss of one's home can be a stressor of sufficient severity to produce symptoms of psychological trauma. (b) The conditions of shelter life may produce trauma symptoms. (c) Many homeless people--particularly women--become homeless after experiencing physical and sexual abuse and consequent psychological trauma. Research suggests that negative psychological responses to traumatic events can be prevented or mitigated by a supportive and empowering posttrauma environment. The implications of trauma theory for improving the psychosocial conditions of homeless people are discussed.
TL;DR: Results suggest that psychologists vary widely in their adherence to a standard of unbiased practice with gay men and lesbians.
Abstract: In 1984, a task force of the American Psychological Association (APA) Committee on Lesbian and Gay Concerns was charged with investigating bias in psychotherapy with lesbians and gay men. The task force surveyed a large and diverse sample of psychologists to elicit information about specific instances of respondent-defined biased and sensitive psychotherapy practice. Open-ended responses were used to separately identify major themes of biased and sensitive practice and to illustrate each with concrete examples. Results suggest that psychologists vary widely in their adherence to a standard of unbiased practice with gay men and lesbians. To bring individual practice into accord with APA policy will require continued and expanded efforts to educate practitioners about sexual orientation.
TL;DR: The American Psychological Association (APA) submitted to the Supreme Court amicus curiae brief supporting the validity of the field of stereotyping and the general methods used by the expert.
Abstract: The American Psychological Association filed an amicus curiae brief supporting the validity of the field of stereotyping and the general methods used by the expert. Such legal application provides further lessons for psychological research on stereotyping. The American Psychological Association (APA) submitted to the Supreme Court amicus curiae brief. The relevant psychological literature was heavily cited in Judge Gesell's original decision, and the testimony about the psychology of stereotyping was cited at all levels of the appeal and review process, including the Supreme Court's decision and the subsequent remand. Social science evidence has played a significant role in race discrimination cases in the Supreme Court since Brown v. Board of Education, but such evidence had not before been used in sex discrimination cases. The psychological literature is strong in showing how per vasive stereotypes are, in demonstrating the myriad conditions that promote them, and in showing how resistant they can be to new information.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors reviewed recent research on the epidemiology, subject characteristics, and service needs of the dually diagnosed homeless population and highlighted the importance of the distinction between providing appropriate living environments and mental health treatments.
Abstract: People who are dually diagnosed with severe mental illness and substance use disorders constitute 10%-20% of homeless persons. They are a heterogeneous and extremely vulnerable subgroup with complex, poorly understood needs. In this article recent research on the epidemiology, subject characteristics, and service needs of the dually diagnosed homeless population is reviewed. Also, the range of evolving approaches to providing social services, housing, and mental health and substance-abuse treatments; the relevant system issues and legal issues; and problems with current research, as well as future research directions, are discussed. The importance of the distinction between providing appropriate living environments and mental health treatments emerges throughout.
TL;DR: The data suggest that women seeking shelter had used up potential sources of support before turning to public shelter, and were more likely than were housed mothers to have had recent contact with parents, other relatives, and friends.
Abstract: This study compares social relationships of 677 mothers in families requesting shelter with those of 495 mothers in housed families, randomly selected from the public assistance caseload in New York City. As hypothesized, women seeking shelter had experienced higher levels of a variety of childhood and adult events indicative of disruptions in social relationships. Contrary to our hypothesis, they were more likely than were housed mothers to have had recent contact with parents, other relatives, and friends, although they felt less able to draw on these resources for help with their current housing needs. More than three fourths of families seeking shelter had already stayed with members of their social network in the past year. The data suggest that they had used up potential sources of support before turning to public shelter.
TL;DR: It is argued that the design of contemporary psychotherapy outcome studies is conceptually incompatible with the models of psychotherapy evaluated in those studies and one possible remedy, idiographic outcome studies using a case formulation model of assessment and treatment, is proposed here.
Abstract: It is argued that the design of contemporary psychotherapy outcome studies is conceptually incompatible with the models of psychotherapy evaluated in those studies. Contemporary outcome studies are incompatible with psychotherapy models because the outcome studies treat patients with standardized treatments that are assigned on the basis of psychiatric diagnosis rather than with individualized treatments based on a theory-driven psychological assessment of the individual's difficulties. One possible remedy, idiographic outcome studies using a case formulation model of assessment and treatment, is proposed here. It is suggested that this research strategy may narrow the scientist-practitioner gap and make it easier to demonstrate differential outcomes of different treatments.
TL;DR: The authors reviewed and criticised community-based research on the effects of homelessness on children, including health problems, hunger, poor nutrition, developmental delays, anxiety, depression, behavioral problems, and educational underachievement.
Abstract: This article reviews and critiques community-based research on the effects of homelessness on children. Homeless children confront serious threats to their ability to succeed and their future well-being. Of particular concern are health problems, hunger, poor nutrition, developmental delays, anxiety, depression, behavioral problems, and educational underachievement. Factors that may mediate the observed outcomes include inadequate shelter conditions, instability in residences and shelters, inadequate services, and barriers to accessing services that are available. Public policy initiatives are needed to meet the needs of homeless children.