Showing papers in "American Psychologist in 1994"

The earth is round (p < .05)

Abstract: After 4 decades of severe criticism, the ritual of null hypothesis significance testing (mechanical dichotomous decisions around a sacred .05 criterion) still persists. This article reviews the problems with this practice, including near universal misinterpretation of p as the probability that H₀ is false, the misinterpretation that its complement is the probability of successful replication, and the mistaken assumption that if one rejects H₀ one thereby affirms the theory that led to the test. Exploratory data analysis and the use of graphic methods, a steady improvement in and a movement toward standardization in measurement, an emphasis on estimating effect sizes using confidence intervals, and the informed use of available statistical methods are suggested. For generalization, psychologists must finally rely, as has been done in all the older sciences, on replication. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Integration of the cognitive and the psychodynamic unconscious.

Abstract: Cognitive-experiential self-theory integrates the cognitive and the psychodynamic unconscious by assuming the existence of two parallel, interacting modes of information processing: a rational system and an emotionally driven experiential system. Support for the theory is provided by the convergence of a wide variety of theoretical positions on two similar processing modes; by real-life phenomena—such as conflicts between the heart and the head; the appeal of concrete, imagistic, and narrative representations; superstitious thinking; and the ubiquity of religion throughout recorded history—and by laboratory research, including the prediction of new phenomena in heuristic reasoning.

Socioeconomic status and health: The challenge of the gradient.

Abstract: Socioeconomic status (SES) is consistently associated with health outcomes, yet little is known about the psychosocial and behavioral mechanisms that might explain this association. Researchers usually control for SES rather than examine it. When it is studied, only effects of lower, poverty-level SES are generally examined. However, there is evidence of a graded association with health at all levels of SES, an observation that requires new thought about domains through which SES may exert its health effects. Variables are highlighted that show a graded relationship with both SES and health to provide examples of possible pathways between SES and health end points. Examples are also given of new analytic approaches that can better illuminate the complexities of the SES-health gradient.

Expert performance: Its structure and acquisition.

Abstract: Counter to the common belief that expert performance reflects innate abilities and capacities, recent research in different domains of expertise has shown that expert performance is predominantly mediated by acquired complex skills and physiological adaptations. For elite performers, supervised practice starts at very young ages and is maintained at high daily levels for more than a decade. The effects of extended deliberate practice are more far-reaching than is commonly believed. Performers can acquire skills that circumvent basic limits on working memory capacity and sequential processing. Deliberate practice can also lead to anatomical changes resulting from adaptations to intense physical activity. The study of expert performance has important implications for our understanding of the structure and limits of human adaptation and optimal learning.

What we know about leadership: Effectiveness and personality.

Abstract: Although psychologists know a great deal about leadership, persons who make decisions about real leaders seem largely to ignore their accumulated wisdom. In an effort to make past research more accessible, interpretable, and relevant to decision makers, this article defines leadership and then answers nine questions that routinely come up when practical decisions are made about leadership (e.g., whom to appoint, how to evaluate them, when to terminate them.

The course of adult intellectual development.

Abstract: A program of research is summarized that represents the author's lifelong efforts to understand the adult life course of intellectual abilities. The Seattle Longitudinal Study has assessed mental abilities in more than 5,000 adults and has followed some for as long as 35 years. Integrative findings are provided on patterns and magnitudes of age changes, cohort differences, factor structure of mental abilities, antecedents for individual differences in aging trajectories, and interventions designed to remediate cognitive aging effects.

Text comprehension, memory, and learning.

Abstract: People are often able to reproduce a text quite well but are unable to use the information in the text for other purposes. Factors that help people to reproduce a text have been studied for some time. This article explores ways that enable people to learn from texts. Content overlap between a text and the reader's prior knowledge is identified as one factor, and methods are proposed to identify whether a text is suitable for readers with given background knowledge. For readers with low background knowledge, a text should be as coherent and explicit as possible to facilitate learning. However, data are presented to show that for readers with adequate background knowledge, texts with coherence gaps that stimulate constructive activities are in fact better for learning.

A Biobehavioral Model of Cancer Stress and Disease Course

Abstract: Approximately 1 million Americans are diagnosed with cancer each year and must cope with the disease and treatments. Many studies have documented the deteriorations in quality of life that occur. These data suggest that the adjustment process is burdensome and lengthy. There is ample evidence showing that adults experiencing other long-term stressors experience not only high rates of adjustment difficulties (e.g., syndromal depression) but important biologic effects, such as persistent downregulation of elements of the immune system, and adverse health outcomes, such as higher rates of respiratory tract infections. Thus, deteriorations in quality of life with cancer are underscored if they have implications for biological processes, such as the immune system, relating to disease progression and spread. Considering these and other data, a biobehavioral model of adjustment to the stresses of cancer is offered, and mechanisms by which psychological and behavioral responses may influence biological processes and, perhaps, health outcomes are proposed. Finally, strategies for testing the model via experiments testing psychological interventions are offered.

Victimization of children

Abstract: Children suffer more victimizations than do adults, including more conventional crimes, more family violence, and some forms virtually unique to children, such as family abduction. On the basis of national statistics, these victimizations can be grouped into three broad categories: the pandemic, such as sibling assault, affecting most children; the acute, such as physical abuse, affecting a fractional but significant percentage; and the extraordinary, such as homicide, affecting a very small group. They can also be differentiated by the degree to which they result from the unique dependency status of children. A field called the victimology of childhood should be defined that adopts a developmental approach to understanding children's vulnerability to different types of victimizations and their different effects.

Individuality and relatedness: Evolution of a fundamental dialectic.

Abstract: Western psychologies have traditionally given greater importance to self-development than to interpersonal relatedness, stressing the development of autonomy, independence, and identity as central factors in the mature personality. In contrast, women, many minority groups, and nonWestern societies have generally placed greater emphasis on issues of relatedness. This article traces the individualistic bias and recent challenges to this view. It is proposed that evolutionary pressures of natural selection result in two basic developmental lines: interpersonal relatedness and self-definition, which interact in a dialectical fashion. An increasingly mature sense of self is contingent on interpersonal relationships; conversely, the continued development of increasingly mature interpersonal relationships is contingent on mature self-definition. Conclusions include implications for social policy and for facilitating more balanced development of both dimensions in all members of society.

Psychoneuroimmunology. The interface between behavior, brain, and immunity

Abstract: Psychoneuroimmunology is the study of interactions between behavior, the brain, and the immune system. This article is designed to provide an overview of this new field for the general psychologist. The existence of bidirectional communication pathways between the brain and the immune system and the implications of this network for behavior are emphasized. Implications are that behavioral-psychological processes ought to be capable of altering immune function and that events that occur as part of immune responses should modulate behavior. Evidence for influences in both of these directions is reviewed. The discussion of psychological modulation of immunity focuses on classical conditioning and stress, whereas that of immune modification of behavior highlights behavioral effects produced by substances released by the immune system. Finally, the adaptive role that such changes might play is considered.

The dieting maelstrom. Is it possible and advisable to lose weight

Abstract: An impassioned debate over the virtues and dangers of dieting is polarizing the field and diverts attention from key issues. Dieting clearly has costs and, for some, has the potential for benefit. The primary challenges are (a) to identify individuals who will be helped or harmed by dieting, (b) to reduce the frequency and severity of dieting in those for whom the costs exceed the benefits, (c) to better understand the physiological and psychological reasons why some people can lose and others cannot, and (d) to develop safe and effective means for weight loss and its maintenance and to target these methods to individuals who stand to benefit.

Chaos, self-organization, and psychology.

Abstract: A variety of investigators in recent years have proposed models of psychological systems based on the concepts of chaos, nonlinear dynamics, and self-organization. Unfortunately, psychologists in general have little understanding of these important ideas. These terms are defined, and their relationships are discussed. The value of applying these concepts to psychological systems is demonstrated by exploring their utility in areas ranging from neuroscience to clinical psychology. Some of the difficulties in using nonlinear concepts and methodologies in empirical investigations are also discussed.

Within-group norming and other forms of score adjustment in preemployment testing.

Abstract: Various forms of score adjustment have been suggested and used when mean differences by gender, race, or ethnicity are found using preemployment tests. This article examines the rationales for score adjustment and describes and compares different forms of score adjustment, including within-group norming, bonus points, separate cutoffs, and banding. It reviews the legal environment for personnel selection and the circumstances leading to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1991. It examines score adjustment in the use of cognitive ability tests, personality inventories, interest inventories, scored biographical data, and physical ability tests and outlines the implications for testing practice of various interpretations of the Civil Rights Act of 1991.

International Migrations: A Framework for Directing Research.

Abstract: Current, large-scale, cross-cultural migrations offer promising research targets for the study of human adaptations. The opportunities for such research, however, remain substantially unused in the mainstream of psychology. The purpose here is to provide a framework encompassing components of the migration experience to aid such research. Contextual factors in the sending and receiving societies impinge on the components of the migration experience: social networks, socioeconomic status, and culture. The components, treated as intertwining transitional experiences in migration, should be juxtaposed in research to examine their effects. Gender and age mediate the effects. The framework aims to benefit research that implicates, directly or heuristically, the experiences of persons exposed to rapid sociocultural change and the consequences of such changes in their lives.

Are clinical psychologists prepared for service and research with ethnic minorities? Report of a decade of progress.

Abstract: Longitudinal data on the status of training of clinical psychologists for service and research with ethnic minority populations were presented in order to assess progress. Data from an earlier survey by Bernal and Padilla (1982), which were collected in 1979-1980, were compared with similar survey data collected in 1990-1991. Results revealed a mixed picture of progress: Key aspects of minority training have improved, and there is a substantial block of programs committed to minority training. However, two changes are needed: engagement in a change process leading to training for cultural competence rather than minimal exposure to culture, and a significant increase in the numbers of minority faculty, which can occur only by a sharp increase in the numbers of minority students admitted into the educational pipeline.

Human Diversity and Professional Competence: Training in Clinical and Counseling Psychology Revisited.

Abstract: Psychologists have increasingly recognized the need to appropriately train students to serve individuals from diverse groups. These groups have been characterized by racial-ethnic membership or defined by sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, gender, and physical ability. Recent reports have documented that many applied graduate training programs still do not provide courses and experiences specific to working with diverse populations. This study presents results from a survey of 259 graduates of counseling and clinical psychology programs. Respondents were asked about training and professional work experiences with diverse groups. Results indicate restricted opportunities for training with diverse clients. Training experiences reported to be most effective are presented. Findings are discussed in light of continuing efforts to promote appropriate services.

On the AHCPR Depression in Primary Care guidelines: Further considerations for practitioners.

Abstract: The majority of cases of clinical depression go unrecognized and untreated, despite the fact that depression is an eminently treatable disorder. The Agency for Health Care Policy and Research (AHCPR) recently published a set of clinical practice guidelines focused on depression in primary care settings. The review of the literature on which the guidelines are based is thorough and appropriate and should enhance the detection of depression and the quality of pharmacotherapy for depression. However, the guidelines encourage primary care physicians to provide pharmacotherapy to their depressed patients as the first line of treatment. The wisdom of this recommendation is questioned and revisions to the guidelines are suggested. Specifically, patients should be informed of the broad array of treatment options available and provided with a more balanced presentation of the potential benefits of psychotherapy for depression. Patients should decide which treatment alternative they wish to undergo.

Does psychiatric disorder predict violent crime among released jail detainees? A six-year longitudinal study

Abstract: The authors examined whether jail detainees with schizophrenia, major affective disorders, alcohol or drug use disorders, or psychotic symptoms (hallucinations and delusions) are arrested more often for violent crimes six years after release than detainees with no disorders. Trained interviewers assessed 728 randomly selected male jail detainees using the National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule and then obtained follow-up arrest data for six years. Neither severe mental disorder nor substance abuse or dependence predicted the probability of arrest or the number of arrests for violent crime. Persons with symptoms of both hallucinations and delusions had a slightly higher number of arrests for violent crime, but not significantly so. These findings held even after controlling for prior violence and age. The findings do not support the stereotype that mentally ill criminals invariably commit violent crimes after they are released. Future directions for research are suggested.

Memory: When less is more.

Abstract: Loss of memory for the characteristics of stimuli (i.e., forgetting of stimulus attributes) can lead to increases in behavior, a consequence quite different from the impairments associated with the forgetting of responses. Evidence from animal and human research for the forgetting of stimuli as a distinct memory principle is presented, and the methodological and conceptual implications of this pervasive type of memory loss are considered. Malleability of eyewitness memory, cognitive confusions, sleeper and familiarity effects, and temporal distortions in inferences and attributions are among the varied behavioral phenomena that can be accounted for in terms of forgetting of stimulus attributes.

The Science and Politics of Race-Norming.

Abstract: Disparate impact (racial imbalance) in employee selection constitutes prima facie evidence of unlawful discrimination. Research in personnel psychology has shown, however, that valid and unbiased selection procedures often guarantee disparate impact and that they will continue to do so as long as there remain large racial disparities in job-related skills and abilities. Employers are in a legal bind because often they can avoid disparate impact only by engaging in unlawful disparate treatment (racial preferences). Some personnel psychologists have argued that there is scientific justification for race-based adjustments in test scores that eliminate disparate impact. Analyses of their seemingly scientific reasoning illustrate how personnel selection science is being compromised in an effort to reconcile contradictory legal demands.