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Showing papers in "American Psychologist in 2002"


Journal Article
TL;DR: The authors summarize 35 years of empirical research on goal-setting theory, describing the core findings of the theory, the mechanisms by which goals operate, moderators of goal effects, the relation of goals and satisfaction, and the role of goals as mediators of incentives.
Abstract: University of TorontoThe authors summarize 35 years of empirical research ongoal-setting theory. They describe the core findings of thetheory, the mechanisms by which goals operate, modera-tors of goal effects, the relation of goals and satisfaction,and the role of goals as mediators of incentives. Theexternal validity and practical significance of goal-settingtheory are explained, and new directions in goal-settingresearch are discussed. The relationships of goal setting toother theories are described as are the theory’s limitations.

5,700 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors summarize 35 years of empirical research on goal-setting theory and describe the core findings of the theory, the mechanisms by which goals operate, moderators of goal effects, the relation of goals and satisfaction, and the role of goals as mediators of incentives.
Abstract: The authors summarize 35 years of empirical research on goal-setting theory. They describe the core findings of the theory, the mechanisms by which goals operate, moderators of goal effects, the relation of goals and satisfaction, and the role of goals as mediators of incentives. The external validity and practical significance of goal-setting theory are explained, and new directions in goal-setting research are discussed. The relationships of goal setting to other theories are described as are the theory's limitations.

4,052 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A developmental neurobiological model of children's school readiness is proposed and direct links are proposed among emotionality, use-dependent synaptic stabilization related to the cortex, the development of executive function abilities, and academic and social competence in school settings.
Abstract: The author examines the construct of emotionality, developmental relations between cognition and emotion, and neural plasticity and frontal cortical functioning and proposes a developmental neurobiological model of children's school readiness. Direct links are proposed among emotionality, use-dependent synaptic stabilization related to the prefrontal cortex, the development of executive function abilities, and academic and social competence in school settings. The author considers research on the efficacy of preschool compensatory education in promoting school readiness and recommends that programs expand to include curricula directly addressing social and emotional competence. Research should focus on the ontogeny of self-regulation and successful adaptation to the socially defined role of student, the development of prevention research programs to reflect this orientation, and interdisciplinary collaborations that integrate scientific methods and questions in the pursuit of comprehensive knowledge of human developmental processes.

1,651 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is argued that most people worldwide now develop a bicultural identity that combines their local identity with an identity linked to the global culture.
Abstract: The influence of globalization on psychological functioning is examined. First, descriptions of how globalization is occurring in various world regions are presented. Then the psychological consequences of globalization are described, with a focus on identity issues. Specifically, it is argued that most people worldwide now develop a bicultural identity that combines their local identity with an identity linked to the global culture; that identity confusion may be increasing among young people in non-Western cultures as a result of globalization; that some people join self-selected cultures to maintain an identity that is separate from the global culture; and that a period of emerging adulthood increasingly extends identity explorations beyond adolescence, through the mid- to late twenties.

1,189 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a Confucian-Socratic framework is used to analyze culture's influence on academic learning and the effects these approaches may have for students who either fit or do not fit the cultural ideal.
Abstract: A Confucian-Socratic framework is used to analyze culture's influence on academic learning. Socrates, a Western exemplar, valued private and public questioning of widely accepted knowledge and expected students to evaluate others' beliefs and to generate and express their own hypotheses. Confucius, an Eastern exemplar, valued effortful, respectful, and pragmatic acquisition of essential knowledge as well as behavioral reform. Expressions of these approaches in modern postsecondary contexts are discussed, as are the effects these approaches may have for students who either fit or do not fit the cultural ideal.

458 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is argued thatdistancing is the dominant response to poor people on the part of those who are not poor and that distancing, separation, exclusion, and devaluing operationally define discrimination.
Abstract: The author argues that distancing is the dominant response to poor people on the part of those who are not poor and that distancing, separation, exclusion, and devaluing operationally define discrimination. Such responses, together with stereotypes and prejudice, define classism. The article focuses on classism in the United States. Classism is examined in the context of theoretical propositions about the moral exclusion of stigmatized others and is illustrated by cognitive distancing, institutional distancing (in education, housing, health care, legal assistance, politics, and public policy), and interpersonal distancing. The adoption of the Resolution on Poverty and Socioeconomic Status by the American Psychological Association Council of Representatives in August 2000 is cited as an important step in the direction of eliminating the invisibility of low-income persons in psychological research and theory.

423 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors review the reasons why so many people tend to fail in their self-change attempts and then examine how people interpret these failures in such a way that they are led to keep trying repeatedly despite apparently overwhelming odds.
Abstract: Despite repeated failure at attempts to change aspects of their behavior, people make frequent attempts at self-change. The generally negative outcome of many such self-change efforts makes it difficult to understand why so many individuals persist at these attempts. The authors have described this cycle of failure and renewed effort as a "false hope syndrome" characterized by unrealistic expectations about the likely speed, amount, ease, and consequences of self-change attempts. In this article, the authors further develop their conceptualization of this syndrome and review its evidential basis. They review the reasons why so many people tend to fail in their self-change attempts and then examine how people interpret these failures in such a way that they are led to keep trying repeatedly despite apparently overwhelming odds. Finally, the authors discuss the psychological consequences of repeated failure and analyze the distinction between confidence and overconfidence.

292 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors describe a method in which individual differences are studied within the framework of a general theory of the population as a whole and illustrate how this method can be used to address three types of issues.
Abstract: Biological systems are particularly prone to variation, and the authors argue that such variation must be regarded as important data in its own right. The authors describe a method in which individual differences are studied within the framework of a general theory of the population as a whole and illustrate how this method can be used to address three types of issues: the nature of the mechanisms that give rise to a specific ability, such as mental imagery; the role of psychological or biological mediators of environmental challenges, such as the biological bases for differences in dispositional mood; and the existence of processes that have nonadditive effects with behavioral and physiological variables, such as factors that modulate the response to stress and its effects on the immune response.

197 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Forensic psychology is now at a crossroads, and the specialty must make an effort to respond to current challenges if it is to aid in the administration of justice by assisting legal decision makers.
Abstract: In a 1987 American Psychologist article, Tom Grisso summarized the state of forensic psychological assessment, noted its limitations and potential, and offered suggestions for researchers and practitioners interested in contributing to its future. Since that time, there have been many important developments in the field of forensic psychology, as well as in clinical psychology more generally, some of which were anticipated and recommended by Grisso, and some of which were not. Forensic psychology is now at a crossroads, and the specialty must make an effort to respond to current challenges if it is to aid in the administration of justice by assisting legal decision makers. The need to distinguish between and identify levels of forensic knowledge and practice, establish guidelines for practice, educate legal consumers, and devote more attention to treatment issues in forensic contexts is highlighted.

167 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The author considers the social importance of the magnitudes of the obtained effects and points out research still needed to clarify issues in the mediation of these effects.
Abstract: Interpersonal expectancy effects refer to the phenomena whereby one person's expectation for another person's behavior comes to serve as a self-fulfilling prophecy. The author examines the history and diversity of this area of inquiry, showing that the expectations of psychological researchers, classroom teachers, judges in the courtroom, business executives, and health care providers can unintentionally affect the responses of their research participants, pupils, jurors, employees, and patients. Using meta-analytic procedures, the author examines (a) moderator variables associated with the magnitude of interpersonal expectancy effects and (b) mediator variables implicated in the communication of interpersonal expectations. The author considers the social importance of the magnitudes of the obtained effects and points out research still needed to clarify issues in the mediation of these effects.

163 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This report summarizes the key recommendations distilled from a group of national leaders in bioethics, multicultural research, and ethnic minority mental health to guide ethical decision making for mental health research involving ethnic minority children and youths.
Abstract: In response to U.S. Public Health Service projects promoting attention to disparities in the outcomes of mental health treatments, in July 2001, the American Psychological Association, the National Institute of Mental Health, and the Fordham University Center for Ethics Education convened a group of national leaders in bioethics, multicultural research, and ethnic minority mental health to produce a living document to guide ethical decision making for mental health research involving ethnic minority children and youths. This report summarizes the key recommendations distilled from these discussions.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The complementary nature of social, cognitive, and biological levels of analysis and how research integrating these levels can foster more comprehensive theories of the mechanisms underlying complex behavior and the mind are discussed in this paper.
Abstract: Social science and neuroscience perspectives represent two ends of a continuum of levels of organization studied in psychology. Human behavior as a whole unfolds at social levels of organization, whereas much of the research in psychology has focused on cognitive and biological pieces of this whole. Recent evidence underscores the complementary nature of social, cognitive, and biological levels of analysis and how research integrating these levels can foster more comprehensive theories of the mechanisms underlying complex behavior and the mind. This research underscores the unity of psychology and the importance of retaining multilevel integrative research that spans molar and molecular levels of analysis.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Enhanced "graphicacy" among psychologists could contribute to the progress of psychological science by providing alternatives to significance testing and by facilitating communication across subfields.
Abstract: Because graphs provide a compact, rhetorically powerful way of representing research findings, recent theories of science have postulated their use as a distinguishing feature of science. Studies have shown that the use of graphs in journal articles correlates highly with the hardness of scientific fields, both across disciplines and across sub-fields of psychology. In contrast, the use of tables and inferential statistics in psychology is inversely related to subfield hardness, suggesting that the relationship between hardness and graph use is not attributable to differences in the use of quantitative data in subfields or their commitment to empiricism. Enhanced "graphicacy" among psychologists could contribute to the progress of psychological science by providing alternatives to significance testing and by facilitating communication across subfields.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The formative and summative research of the Model Program is described in hopes of advancing theory and research for meeting the academic and social needs of low-income African American children.
Abstract: The economic and social barriers to the academic and social success of many African American children remain in place as the new millennium begins. These realities provide impetus for developing community-based partnership education programs designed to self-empower African American children for academic and social success under any socioeconomic conditions that exist in their lives. Progress toward effective program development, however, has been hindered by a dearth of culturally sensitive theories and research. The Research-Based Model Partnership Education Program (Model Program) is an effective, community-based, university-school-community partnership education program for self-empowering African American children for success. The formative and summative research of the Model Program is described in hopes of advancing theory and research for meeting the academic and social needs of low-income African American children.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Intervention efforts with juvenile sex offenders and research that suggests rates of recidivism for sexual offenses may be lower for juveniles than for adults who have been discovered and received punishment and/or treatment are examined.
Abstract: This article examines (a) the history of registration and notification statutes for sex offenders and the concerns and legal challenges they have faced, (b) psychology's limited knowledge about normal versus abnormal sexual development, and (c) research that suggests rates of recidivism for sexual offenses may be lower for juveniles than for adults who have been discovered and received punishment and/or treatment. Although the behaviors of juvenile and adult sex offenders may appear similar, the underlying mechanisms triggering the behaviors may be different or juveniles' patterns of behaviors may be less established, accounting for some of the observed differences in recidivism rates. Although the authors recognize the critical objective of protecting victims and potential victims, this article focuses on intervention efforts with juvenile sex offenders.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: From three perspectives--past, present, and future--the author presents abbreviated and selected highlights of important construct validity findings related to this research and postulates possible trends and areas of self-concept research yet to be explored.
Abstract: Although the study of self-concept has been a topic of great interest and much study in the social sciences for many decades, it is really only in the past 30 years that any fruitful expansion in knowledge of both its theoretical structure and its related measurement has been forthcoming. From three perspectives--past, present, and future--the author presents abbreviated and selected highlights of important construct validity findings related to this research and postulates possible trends and areas of self-concept research yet to be explored.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Western interpretations of shamanism often reveal more about the observer than they do about the observed; in addressing this challenge, the study of Shamanism could make contributions to cognitive neuroscience, social psychology, psychological therapy, and ecological psychology.
Abstract: Shamans' communities grant them privileged status to attend to those groups' psychological and spiritual needs. Shamans claim to modify their attentional states and engage in activities that enable them to access information not ordinarily attainable by members of the social group that has granted them shamanic status. Western perspectives on shamanism have changed and clashed over the centuries; this address presents points and counterpoints regarding what might be termed the demonic model, the charlatan model, the schizophrenia model, the soul flight model, the degenerative and crude technology model, and the deconstructionist model. Western interpretations of shamanism often reveal more about the observer than they do about the observed; in addressing this challenge, the study of shamanism could make contributions to cognitive neuroscience, social psychology, psychological therapy, and ecological psychology.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors assembles a theory of historical generations from dispersed sources in the social and behavioral sciences and in the humanities, differentiates the theory from formulations of other generation concepts, and applies it to central features in the lives of persons in the generation of the Great Depression and World War II.
Abstract: The author assembles a theory of historical generations from dispersed sources in the social and behavioral sciences and in the humanities, differentiates the theory from formulations of other generation concepts, and applies it to central features in the lives of persons in the generation of the Great Depression and World War II. The application of the theory to historical materials explains how a commitment to social interdependence emerged as the signature orientation of the generation of the Great Depression and World War II. Challenges to the perspective of contextualism stem from the theory's hypotheses about linkages that mediate between cataclysmic events and psychological processes, the influence of historical generations on many of psychology's everyday concerns, and instructive comparisons with a body of growing research on processes involving adaptations to different cultures.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A 1998 meta-analysis by B. Rind, P. Tromovitch, and R. Bauserman indicated that the relations between child sexual abuse and later psychopathology were weak in magnitude as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: A 1998 meta-analysis by B. Rind, P. Tromovitch, and R. Bauserman in Psychological Bulletin indicated that the relations between child sexual abuse and later psychopathology were weak in magnitude. Shortly thereafter, this article was condemned by media personality Dr. Laura Schlessinger and numerous conservative organizations and was denounced by the United States Congress. In addition, the American Psychological Association (APA) distanced itself from the authors' conclusions. This incident raises questions regarding (a) authors' responsibilities concerning the reporting of politically controversial findings, (b) academic and scientific freedom, (c) the role of the APA in disabusing the public and media of logical errors and fallacies, and (d) the substantial gap between popular and academic psychology and the responsibility of the APA to narrow that gap.

Journal ArticleDOI

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors reviewed research about a profound misconception that is present among college students, namely, the belief that the process of vision includes emanations from the eyes, an idea that was originally professed by early Greek philosophers and which persisted in scholarly circles for centuries.
Abstract: The authors reviewed research about a profound misconception that is present among college students, namely, the belief that the process of vision includes emanations from the eyes, an idea that is consistent with the extramission theory of perception, which was originally professed by early Greek philosophers and which persisted in scholarly circles for centuries. The authors document the strength and breadth of this phenomenon and the object failure of traditional educational techniques to overcome this belief, and they reveal that students are leaving psychology courses with a flawed understanding of one of the most studied processes in the history of psychology--visual perception. Some suggestions are offered for overcoming this misconception in traditional college classroom settings.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Vitousek and Gray as discussed by the authors suggested that taste aversions might make it easier for some anorexics to refrain from eating in the face of starvation, but they did not suggest that taste aversion is the major causal factor in anorexia nervosa.
Abstract: 373 few published studies of either the positiveincentive value of food or of conditioned taste aversions in anorexics. Vitousek and Gray’s comments about the positive-incentive value of food in anorexics, although intended as an attack on our position, cry out for more research. Anorexics act in some ways as if they are experiencing aversions for food and in others as if food has a very high positiveincentive value—just the sort of ambivalent behavior that one would expect of starving subjects with widespread taste aversions. We did not suggest that taste aversions are the major causal factor in anorexia nervosa but rather that for some anorexics, taste aversions might make it easier for them to refrain from eating in the face of starvation. Vitousek and Gray (2002) responded by pointing out that the participants in the Keys et al. (1950) study managed to voluntarily starve themselves without apparent taste aversions. In contrast to most anorexics, however, the participants in the Keys et al. study were not continually encouraged to eat. In addition, they requested that they not be asked to perform functions that involved the handling of food “because the temptations under these circumstances were too great” (Keys et al., 1950, p. 832). Unfortunately, Vitousek and Gray (2002) did not comment on our conclusion that the consumption of meals by anorexics may be contraindicated. The disruptive postingestion effects of meals in starving subjects are well documented. Our suggestion that adverse effects, such as widespread conditioned taste aversions, might be produced in anorexics by meals has immediate implications for the design of treatment programs for anorexia, which often have as their major goal the consumption of meals.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Although induction (hypothesis testing) is central to science, neither NHST nor any other form of statistical significance testing is required for hypothesis testing, and this leads to one of two false conclusions about the meaning of the literature.
Abstract: Krueger’s (January 2001) thesis can be summarized as follows: Induction is central to science (true). From a philosophical perspective, induction cannot be defended logically but can be defended pragmatically— because it leads to progress in science (true). Null hypothesis significance testing (NHST) is a good tool—perhaps the essential tool— for induction and inference from research data (false). NHST is like induction: It cannot be defended logically (true) but can be defended pragmatically (false). The pragmatic defense Krueger offered is the contention that NHST has “proven useful” (p. 24) and that it “rewards the pragmatic scientist” (p. 23; both false). Induction as used by Krueger (2001) is the same as hypothesis testing; it is undisputed that hypothesis testing is indispensable for science. Krueger’s position, then, reduces to the proposition that NHST is the best procedure—and perhaps the essential procedure— for testing hypotheses. This false argument has long been offered as a defense of significance testing (Schmidt & Hunter, 1997, pp. 42–44). In its strong form, the argument is that without significance testing, psychologists could not have a science because they would no longer be able to test hypotheses. The physical sciences, such as physics and chemistry, do not use NHST or statistical significance tests of any kind, yet these sciences test hypotheses and have done so for centuries. In fact, in contrast to many psychologists, most researchers in the physical sciences regard reliance on significance testing as unscientific (Schmidt, 1996). If the argument is that hypothesis testing requires the use of significance tests, then the logical implications are that physicists and chemists are not really testing hypotheses and that their research is not really scientific. How plausible is this? If the argument is that significance testing is the best method of testing hypotheses in science, then the logical implication is that the hypothesis-testing methods used in physics and chemistry are suboptimal and inferior to those based on NHST and typically used in psychology. Does anyone really believe this? Hence, although induction (hypothesis testing) is central to science, neither NHST nor any other form of statistical significance testing is required for hypothesis testing. Significance testing almost invariably retards the search for knowledge by producing false conclusions about research literature. The evidence is strong that the null hypothesis is almost always false in psychological research. For example, Lipsey and Wilson (1993) examined 302 meta-analyses of psychological interventions of all kinds in many areas of psychology. In only 2 of these meta-analyses were the effect sizes (ESs) zero or near zero (less than 1%). An examination of all published meta-analyses would produce a similar figure for psychology as a whole. If the null hypothesis is typically false, then Type I error is not important because it is impossible to make a Type I error when the null is false. What is important is Type II error: failing to detect the effect or relation that is there. One minus the Type II error rate is the statistical power of the study: the probability of detecting the effect or relation. The evidence is clear that the average level of statistical power in psychological research is between .40 and .60 (e.g., see Cohen, 1962, 1994; Sedlmeier & Gigerenzer, 1989). The operational decision rule used by researchers is “if it is significant, it is real; if it is not significant, it is zero” (Schmidt, 1996). Hence, the error rate in the typical psychological research literature is approximately 50%—that is, half of all studies reach false conclusions about the null hypothesis, a situation of maximal apparent conflict in the literature. As discussed by Schmidt (1996), this leads to one of two false conclusions about the meaning of the literature. The first is that the literature is so conflicting that nothing can be concluded. The second is that there are interactions or moderator variables that cause the effect to exist in some studies and to be nonexistent in others and that research should be directed at finding these moderator variables. Meta-analysis typically indicates that both of these conclusions are false—by revealing that the effect exists in all studies (Schmidt, 1996). Significance tests are a disastrous method for testing hypotheses, but a better method does exist: use of point estimates (ESs) and confidence intervals (CIs). First, unlike significance tests, CIs hold the real error rate to .05 (or whatever confidence level is set); there is no possibility of a higher error rate as with significance tests. In particular, the true error rate will never be 50% when the researcher thinks it is 5% (because the alpha level is set at .05). Second, almost all of the CIs from different studies overlap each other, correctly suggesting that the studies are not contradictory. Third, the CI clearly reveals the level of uncertainty in the study results; unlike the significance test, the CI provides an index of the effects of sampling error on the results. Finally, the ES provides the information needed for subsequent meta-analyses, whereas the significance test does not. Krueger (2001) stated, “In daily research activities, NHST has proven useful. Researchers make decisions concerning the validity of hypotheses, and although their decisions sometimes disagree, they are not random or arbitrary” (p. 24). First, Krueger presented no evidence to support his assertion of NHST’s usefulness. As shown above, significance testing creates confusion and false conclusions about research literature. How is this useful? Second, researchers’ conclusions disagree more often than sometimes—in the typical research literature, they disagree 50% of

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The core competencies for all health professionals developed by the National Coalition for Health Professional Education in Genetics are related in this article to the significant roles psychologists can play in helping individuals with genetic concerns to cope with vulnerability, optimize family interaction, and improve health behaviors.
Abstract: Advances in genetics and genetic testing promise to catalyze a fundamental change in the practice of medicine. Psychologists have much to offer as psychotherapists, researchers, educators, and policymakers to a society heavily influenced by the genetic revolution. To make the most of new opportunities available to mental health professionals in genetics, psychologists must know basic genetic principles and learn what is new about 21st-century genetics. The core competencies for all health professionals developed by the National Coalition for Health Professional Education in Genetics are related in this article to the significant roles psychologists can play in helping individuals with genetic concerns to cope with vulnerability, optimize family interaction, and improve health behaviors.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In 1954, in Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court struck down the "separate but equal" doctrine of the Plessy v. Ferguson decision (1896) that was the foundation of school segregation in 17 states and the District of Columbia as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: In 1954, in Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court struck down the "separate but equal" doctrine of the Plessy v. Ferguson decision (1896) that was the foundation of school segregation in 17 states and the District of Columbia. Brown is arguably the most important Supreme Court decision of the 20th century in terms of its influence on American history. Moreover, it has a special significance for psychology because it marked the first time that psychological research was cited in a Supreme Court decision and because social science data were seen as paramount in the Court's decision to end school segregation. This article describes psychologist Kenneth B. Clark's role in that case and the response of the American Psychological Association to scientific psychology's moment in a great spotlight.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors examines some alternative ways in which some of the disorganization is being actively created by forms of argumentation used in reporting and discussing psychological research, and argues that the incompatibility between the values latent in such social organizations and the values that motivate scientific inquiry at a personal level.
Abstract: There has been in the field of psychology a long and well-documented discontent with an apparent disorganization in its literature, most often interpreted as reflecting the absence of a unifying theory. This article examines some alternative ways in which some of the disorganization is being actively created by forms of argumentation used in reporting and discussing psychological research. One institutionalized form of argumentation used in reporting data actually generates the proliferation of theoretical terms in the literature. A second form of argumentation reifies theories into social groups, incorporating values that discourage theoretical integration. Some of the discontent arises from the incompatibility between the values latent in such social organizations and the values that motivate scientific inquiry at a personal level.

Journal ArticleDOI

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Homegrown stereotypes as discussed by the authors are generalizations that groups develop about their own typical characteristics They are a distinct class of in-group stereotypes in the contexts and processes that give rise to them, as well as in their consequences for individual group members.
Abstract: Homegrown stereotypes are generalizations that groups develop about their own typical characteristics They are a distinct class of in-group stereotypes in the contexts and processes that give rise to them, as well as in their consequences for individual group members The authors develop the concept of homegrown stereotypes and locate the origins of these stereotypes in self-presentation processes They discuss the accuracy of these stereotypes and consider their similarities to and differences from a number of related phenomena An examination of homegrown stereotypes highlights the importance of taking into account the impact of in-group, as well as intergroup, dynamics on the production of stereotypes