Showing papers in "American Psychologist in 2005"

Positive Psychology Progress: Empirical Validation of Interventions.

Abstract: Positive psychology has flourished in the last 5 years. The authors review recent developments in the field, including books, meetings, courses, and conferences. They also discuss the newly created classification of character strengths and virtues, a positive complement to the various editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (e. g., American Psychiatric Association, 1994), and present some cross-cultural findings that suggest a surprising ubiquity of strengths and virtues. Finally, the authors focus on psychological interventions that increase individual happiness. In a 6-group, random-assignment, placebo-controlled Internet study, the authors tested 5 purported happiness interventions and 1 plausible control exercise. They found that 3 of the interventions lastingly increased happiness and decreased depressive symptoms. Positive interventions can supplement traditional interventions that relieve suffering and may someday be the practical legacy of positive psychology.

The gender similarities hypothesis.

Abstract: The differences model, which argues that males and females are vastly different psychologically, dominates the popular media. Here, the author advances a very different view, the gender similarities hypothesis, which holds that males and females are similar on most, but not all, psychological variables. Results from a review of 46 meta-analyses support the gender similarities hypothesis. Gender differences can vary substantially in magnitude at different ages and depend on the context in which measurement occurs. Overinflated claims of gender differences carry substantial costs in areas such as the workplace and relationships.

Positive Affect and the Complex Dynamics of Human Flourishing.

Abstract: To flourish means to live within an optimal range of human functioning, one that connotes goodness, generativity, growth, and resilience. This definition builds on path-breaking work that measures mental health in positive terms rather than by the absence of mental illness (Keyes, 2002). Flourishing contrasts not just with pathology but also with languishing: a disorder intermediate along the mental health continuum experienced by people who describe their lives as “hollow” or “empty.” Epidemiological work suggests that fewer than 20% of U.S. adults flourish and that the costs of languishing are high; relative to flourishing (and comparable to depression), languishing brings more emotional distress, psychosocial impairment, limitations in daily activities, and lost work days (Keyes, 2002). What predicts whether people will flourish or languish? Are the predictors similar for individuals, relationships, and larger groups? Drawing together existing theory and research on affect and nonlinear dynamic systems, we propose that a key predictor of flourishing is the ratio of positive to negative affect. Over time, and in both private and social contexts, people experience a range of pleasant and unpleasant emotions and moods, and they express a variety of positive and negative evaluative sentiments or attitudes. We use affect to represent this spectrum of valenced feeling states and attitudes, with positive affect and positivity interchangeably representing the pleasant end (e.g., feeling grateful, upbeat; expressing appreciation, liking) and negative affect and negativity representing the unpleasant end (e.g., feeling contemptuous, irritable; expressing disdain, disliking). The affective texture of a person’s life—or of a given relationship or group—can be represented by its positivity ratio, the ratio of pleasant feelings and sentiments to unpleasant ones over time. Past research has shown that for individuals, this ratio predicts subjective well-being (Diener, 2000; Kahneman, 1999). Pushing further, we hypothesize that—for individuals, relationships, and teams—positivity ratios that meet or exceed a certain threshold characterize human flourishing. Although both negative and positive affect can produce adaptive and maladaptive outcomes, a review of the benefits of positive affect provides a particularly useful backdrop for our theorizing.

Inference by eye: confidence intervals and how to read pictures of data.

Abstract: Wider use in psychology of confidence intervals (CIs), especially as error bars in figures, is a desirable development. However, psychologists seldom use CIs and may not understand them well. The authors discuss the interpretation of figures with error bars and analyze the relationship between CIs and statistical significance testing. They propose 7 rules of eye to guide the inferential use of figures with error bars. These include general principles: Seek bars that relate directly to effects of interest, be sensitive to experimental design, and interpret the intervals. They also include guidelines for inferential interpretation of the overlap of CIs on independent group means. Wider use of interval estimation in psychology has the potential to improve research communication substantially.

Race as biology is fiction, racism as a social problem is real: Anthropological and historical perspectives on the social construction of race.

Abstract: Racialized science seeks to explain human population differences in health, intelligence, education, and wealth as the consequence of immutable, biologically based differences between "racial" groups. Recent advances in the sequencing of the human genome and in an understanding of biological correlates of behavior have fueled racialized science, despite evidence that racial groups are not genetically discrete, reliably measured, or scientifically meaningful. Yet even these counterarguments often fail to take into account the origin and history of the idea of race. This article reviews the origins of the concept of race, placing the contemporary discussion of racial differences in an anthropological and historical context.

The Staircase to Terrorism: A Psychological Exploration.

Abstract: To foster a more in-depth understanding of the psychological processes leading to terrorism, the author conceptualizes the terrorist act as the final step on a narrowing staircase. Although the vast majority of people, even when feeling deprived and unfairly treated, remain on the ground floor, some individuals climb up and are eventually recruited into terrorist organizations. These individuals believe they have no effective voice in society, are encouraged by leaders to displace aggression onto out-groups, and become socialized to see terrorist organizations as legitimate and out-group members as evil. The current policy of focusing on individuals already at the top of the staircase brings only short-term gains. The best long-term policy against terrorism is prevention, which is made possible by nourishing contextualized democracy on the ground floor.

Sex Differences in Intrinsic Aptitude for Mathematics and Science?: A Critical Review.

Abstract: This article considers 3 claims that cognitive sex differences account for the differential representation of men and women in high-level careers in mathematics and science: (a) males are more focused on objects from the beginning of life and therefore are predisposed to better learning about mechanical systems; (b) males have a profile of spatial and numerical abilities producing greater aptitude for mathematics; and (c) males are more variable in their cognitive abilities and therefore predominate at the upper reaches of mathematical talent. Research on cognitive development in human infants, preschool children, and students at all levels fails to support these claims. Instead, it provides evidence that mathematical and scientific reasoning develop from a set of biologically based cognitive capacities that males and females share. These capacities lead men and women to develop equal talent for mathematics and science.

Beyond the optimal contact strategy: a reality check for the contact hypothesis.

Abstract: The contact hypothesis proposes that interaction between members of different groups reduces intergroup prejudice if--and only if--certain optimal conditions are present. For over 50 years, research using this framework has explored the boundary conditions for ideal contact and has guided interventions to promote desegregation. Although supporting the contact hypothesis in principle, the authors critique some research practices that have come to dominate the field: (a) the prioritizing of the study of interactions occurring under rarefied conditions, (b) the reformulation of lay understandings of contact in terms of a generic typology of ideal dimensions, and (c) the use of shifts in personal prejudice as the primary measure of outcome. The authors argue that these practices have limited the contact hypothesis both as an explanation of the intergroup dynamics of desegregation and as a framework for promoting social psychological change. In so arguing, the authors look toward a complementary program of research on contact and desegregation.

Promoting and Protecting Youth Mental Health Through Evidence-Based Prevention and Treatment.

Abstract: For decades, empirically tested youth interventions have prevented dysfunction by addressing risk and ameliorated dysfunction through treatment. The authors propose linking prevention and treatment within an integrated model. The model suggests a research agenda: Identify effective programs for a broadened array of problems and disorders, examine ethnicity and culture in relation to intervention adoption and impact, clarify conditions under which programs do and do not work, identify change mechanisms that account for effects, test interventions in real-world contexts, and make tested interventions accessible and effective in community and practice settings. Connecting the science and practice of prevention and treatment will be good for science, for practice, and for children, adolescents, and their families.

The meaning of race in psychology and how to change it: A methodological perspective.

Abstract: The primary purpose of this article was to offer a methodological critique in support of arguments that racial categories should be replaced as explanatory constructs in psychological research and theory. To accomplish this goal, the authors (a) summarized arguments for why racial categories should be replaced; (b) used principles of the scientific method to show that racial categories lack conceptual meaning; (c) identified common errors in researchers' measurement, statistical analyses, and interpretation of racial categories as independent variables; and (d) used hierarchical regression analysis to illustrate a strategy for replacing racial categories in research designs with conceptual variables. Implications for changing the study of race in psychology are discussed.

On the psychology of confessions: does innocence put innocents at risk?

Abstract: The Central Park jogger case and other recent exonerations highlight the problem of wrongful convictions, 15% to 25% of which have contained confessions in evidence. Recent research suggests that actual innocence does not protect people across a sequence of pivotal decisions: (a) In preinterrogation interviews, investigators commit false-positive errors, presuming innocent suspects guilty; (b) naively believing in the transparency of their innocence, innocent suspects waive their rights; (c) despite or because of their denials, innocent suspects elicit highly confrontational interrogations; (d) certain commonly used techniques lead suspects to confess to crimes they did not commit; and (e) police and others cannot distinguish between uncorroborated true and false confessions. It appears that innocence puts innocents at risk, that consideration should be given to reforming current practices, and that a policy of videotaping interrogations is a necessary means of protection.

The Primacy of Cognition in Schizophrenia.

Abstract: Cognitive tasks and concepts are used increasingly in schizophrenia science and treatment. Recent meta-analyses show that across a spectrum of research domains only cognitive measures distinguish a majority of schizophrenia patients from healthy people. Average effect sizes derived from common clinical tests of attention, memory, language, and reasoning are twice as large as those obtained in structural magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography studies. Chronic stress, genes, brain disturbances, task structure, gender, and sociocultural background may all enhance the sensitivity of cognitive performance to schizophrenia. At the same time, disease heterogeneity and the presence of endophenotypes and subtypes within the patient population may place upper limits on the strength of any specific cognitive finding. Schizophrenia is a complex biobehavioral disorder that manifests itself primarily in cognition.

The rhetoric and reality of gap closing: when the "have-nots" gain but the "haves" gain even more .

Abstract: Many forms of intervention, across different domains, have the surprising effect of widening preexisting gaps between disadvantaged youth and their advantaged counterparts—if such interventions are made available to all students, not just to the disadvantaged. Whether this widening of gaps is incongruent with American interests and values requires an awareness of this gap-widening potential when interventions are universalized and a national policy that addresses the psychological, political, economic, and moral dimensions of elevating the top students—tomorrow’s business and science leaders—and/or elevating the bottom students to redress past inequalities and reduce the future costs associated with them. This article is a first step in bringing this dilemma to the attention of scholars and policymakers and prodding a national discussion.

Still looking for Poppa.

Abstract: In 1992, V. Phares published an article titled "Where's Poppa?: The Relative Lack of Attention to the Role of Fathers in Child and Adolescent Psychopathology". Since that time, there have been modest gains in the research literature on clinical child issues, but there remains a wide gap between the inclusion of mothers and fathers in clinical child and family research. To provide an update of this issue for the field of developmental psychopathology, the authors of this comment conducted an updated review and analysis of the research on fathers and developmental psychopathology. These current data were compared with the data from the Phares and Compas (1992) study. It was found that there continues to be a dearth of research on fathers and developmental psychopathology.

Children's Mental Health as a Primary Care and Concern: A System for Comprehensive Support and Service.

Abstract: In response to the serious crisis in mental health care for children in the United States, this article proposes as a priority for psychology a comprehensive approach that treats mental health as a primary issue in child health and welfare. Consistent with the principles of a system of care and applying epidemiological, risk-development, and intervention-research findings, this approach emphasizes 4 components: easy access to effective professional clinical services for children exhibiting disorders; further development and application of sound prevention principles for high-risk youths; support for and access to short-term intervention in primary care settings; and greater recognition and promotion of mental health issues in common developmental settings and other influential systems. Integral to this approach is the need to implement these components simultaneously and to incorporate family-focused, culturally competent, evidence-based, and developmentally appropriate services. This comprehensive, simultaneous, and integrated approach is needed to achieve real progress in children's mental health in this country.

Intelligence, Race, and Genetics

Abstract: In this article, the authors argue that the overwhelming portion of the literature on intelligence, race, and genetics is based on folk taxonomies rather than scientific analysis. They suggest that because theorists of intelligence disagree as to what it is, any consideration of its relationships to other constructs must be tentative at best. They further argue that race is a social construction with no scientific definition. Thus, studies of the relationship between race and other constructs may serve social ends but cannot serve scientific ends. No gene has yet been conclusively linked to intelligence, so attempts to provide a compelling genetic link of race to intelligence are not feasible at this time. The authors also show that heritability, a behavior-genetic concept, is inadequate in regard to providing such a link.

Transforming mental health care for children and their families.

Abstract: In April 2002, the President's New Freedom Commission on Mental Health was created by executive order to study the mental health care delivery system in our nation and to make recommendations for improvements so that individuals with serious mental disorders can live, work, learn, and fully participate in their homes and communities. In its report, "Achieving the Promise: Transforming Mental Health Care in America," the commission provided strategies to address critical infrastructure, practice, and research issues. This article focuses on the work of the commission's Subcommittee on Children and Families, describing its vision for mental health service delivery for children and providing suggestions for strengthening community-based care for youths with or at risk of behavioral health disorders. Training, research, practice, and policy implications for psychologists are discussed.

The Cinderella of psychology: the neglect of motor control in the science of mental life and behavior.

Abstract: One would expect psychology--the science of mental life and behavior--to place great emphasis on the means by which mental life is behaviorally expressed. Surprisingly, however, the study of how decisions are enacted--the focus of motor control research--has received little attention in psychology. This article documents the neglect and considers possible reasons for it. The hypotheses considered include three that are raised and then rejected: (a) no famous psychologists have studied motor control, (b) cognitive psychologists are mainly interested in uniquely human functions, and (c) motor control is simply too hard to study. Three other hypotheses are more viable: (d) cognitive psychologists have been more interested in epistemology than in action, (e) psychologists have disfavored motor control because overt responses were the only admissible measure in behaviorism, and (f) psychologists have felt that neuroscientists have the market cornered when it comes to motor control research. There are signs that motor control's Cinderella status is changing.

On hardiness and other pathways to resilience.

Abstract: On Hardiness and Other Pathways to Resilience Salvatore R. Maddi University of California, Irvine Bonanno’s (January 2004) recent, excellent article is a compelling analysis of several different reactions to extremely aversive events. With regard to major stressors, such as the death of a loved one or the experi- ence a life-threatening circumstance. there is. notably, not only the psychopathological breakdown (e.g., posttraumatic stress dis- order [PFSD] or depressive disorder) that has been emphasized but also the less rec- ognized resilient response, in which there is little or no loss of functioning. Whereas the emphasis in the breakdown response is understandably on treannent that facilitates recovery, the resilient response may re- quire little but the person's own ongo- ing efforts in life to continue effectively. Indeed, Bonanno suggested that the typi- cal treatment efforts following traumatic events might actually undermine the resil- ient person's adjustment efforts. Bonanno's conceptualization and supportive research evidence advance our understanding of indi- viduals' reactions to massive stressors. Further. Bonanno (2004) argued that there are multiple pathways to resilience under stress. and he identified personality hardiness as one of them. His presentation _of hardiness accurately emphasizes its in- terrelated attitudes of commitment (rather. than alienation), control (rather than power- lessness), and challenge (rather than threat) but does not cover how this concept has evolved over the last 25 years. Coordinat- ing theory, research, and practice over this period of time. I have concluded (Maddi, 2002) that hardy attitudes amount to the courage and motivation to face stressors accurately (rather than to deny or cata- strophize them). This courage and motiva- tion lead to coping by problem solving rather than by avoiding and to interacting with others by giving and getting assistance and encouragement rather than by striking out or ovcrprotecting. Thus, personality hardiness is emerging as a pattern of atti- tudes and actions that helps in transfonning stressors from potential disasters into growth opportunities. Findings have shown that hardiness enhances resiliency in a wide range of stressful circumstances. such as when nurses regularly confront death and dying in hospice settings, or when statistical con- sultants experience culture shock in their work overseas. or when immigrants arrive in the United States; indeed, hardiness en- hances resiliency in response to the ongo- ing demands and pressures of everyday life (Maddi, 2002). Of particular relevance to Bonanno’s (2004) article are the findings of several studies in which Bartone (1999) measured hardiness levels in military per- sonnel just before they left this country for overseas service in combat or peace- keeping missions. The higher their hardi- ness level, the less likely these soldiers were to develop PTSD or depressive disor- ders following the experience of life-threat- ening stressors. The H m-R q(WWI Khoshaba, 200i) is a 65-item questionnaire with considerable reliability and validity that measures the attitudes, coping strate- gies. and interaction patterns of hardiness. This test can be administered in hard copy form or on the Internet. and it generates a comprehensive report. As Bonanno (2004) pointed out. subjecting resilient people to clinical interventions following major stressors may actually undermine their ‘functioning. ltimay be useful, therefore, to evaluate such personality characteris- tics as hardiness (by administering the l-lardisurvey III-R) to persons who have either just experienced trauma or are likely to because of their work and social pat- terns. Such an approach may facilitate in- formed decisions as to how to proceed according to a person's need after experi- encing a major stressor. There is also a training program (Khoshaba & Maddi, 2001), based on the- ory, research, and practice, that emphasizes several sessions and a workbook to en- hance the attitudes, coping strategies, and interaction patterns of hardiness. Thus far, research has shown that among people completing the training, students subse- quently improve in grade point average, college retention rates, and health, and working adults improve in performance. job satisfaction, and health (Maddi. 2002). Building on Bonanno's (2004) argument. I propose that the HardiTraining program may be especially useful for people who are at risk of encountering major stressors because of their occupations or life circumstances. Finally, Bonanno (2004) identified several other pathways to resiliency under stress besides hardiness. These include self-enhancement (an overly positive bias about oneself). repressive coping (render- ing unpleasant tmotions unconscious), and positive emotion/laughter (expressing pos- itivity). Thcse three pathways are not only different from each other but are also no- tably different from the concept of hardi- ness and the courage and hard work em- phasized in that pathway. If these three pathways can be measured adequately. it would be useful to engage in research com- paring their power in evoking resiliency under stress with that of personality hardi- ness. Are these four pathways empirically different enough from each other to be con- sidered scparately? If so, is one or another of them the most effective, or are combi- nations of pathways better than single ones? Bonanno's exciting position has opened the way for such comparative ana- A lyric research (Maddi. 1996) through which researchers can further their current knowl- edge concerning how resilience under stress comes about. REFERENCES Banone, P. T. (1999). Hardiness protects against war-related stress in Army Reserve forces. Consulting Psychology Journal, 51, 72- 82. Bonanno. G. A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and hu- man resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aver- sive events? American Psychologist, 59, 20-28. Khoshaba. D. M.. & Maddi, S. R. (2001). lIardt'Training (4th ed.). Newport Beach. CA: Hardiness Institute. Maddi. S. R. (1996). Personality theories.’ A comparative analysis (6th ed.). Prospect Heights. IL: Waveland Press. Maddi. S. R. (2002). The story of hardiness: Twenty years of theorizing. research. and practice. Consulting Psychology Journal, 54, 173-185. Maddi. S. R., & Khoshaba, D. M. (2001). Hardisurvey III-R: Test development and internet instruction manual (4th ed.). New- port Beach, CA: Hardiness Institute. Correspondence concerning this comment should be addressed to Salvatore R. Maddi. Har- diness lnstitute, 4425 Jamboree, Suite 100. Newport Beach. CA 92660-3204. F.-mail: srmaddi@uci.edu

A tale of two visions: can a new view of personality help integrate psychology?

Abstract: Personality psychology studies how psychological systems work together. Consequently, the field can act as a unifying resource for the broader discipline of psychology. Yet personality's current fieldwide organization promotes a fragmented view of the person, seen through such competing theories as the psychodynamic, trait, and humanistic. There exists an alternative--a systems framework for personality--that focuses on 4 topics: identifying personality, personality's parts, its organization, and its development. This new framework and its view of personality are described. The framework is applied to such issues as personality measurement, psychotherapy outcome research, and education. The new framework may better organize the field of personality and help with its mission of addressing how major psychological systems interrelate.

The use of race variables in genetic studies of complex traits and the goal of reducing health disparities: a transdisciplinary perspective.

Abstract: The use of racial variables in genetic studies has become a matter of intense public debate, with implications for research design and translation into practice. Using research on smoking as a springboard, the authors examine the history of racial categories, current research practices, and arguments for and against using race variables in genetic analyses. The authors argue that the sociopolitical constructs appropriate for monitoring health disparities are not appropriate for use in genetic studies investigating the etiology of complex diseases. More powerful methods for addressing population structure exist, and race variables are unacceptable as gross proxies for numerous social/environmental factors that disproportionately affect minority populations. The authors conclude with recommendations for genetic researchers and policymakers, aimed at facilitating better science and producing new knowledge useful for reducing health disparities.

Psychotherapy, classism, and the poor: conspicuous by their absence.

Abstract: Four decades of research have delineated the need for improved psychotherapeutic opportunities for poor clients, yet psychotherapists remain contradictory in their stance regarding service to the poor. Despite periodic calls within the field to address the needs of poor people, evidence from the psychotherapeutic literature suggests that the poor are still largely absent from consideration. What barriers prevent psychotherapists from enacting their professional principles more consistently on behalf of poor clients? The author suggests that unexamined classist assumptions constitute a significant obstacle for practitioners and presents the experience of confronting her own classism to illustrate the operation of these attitudinal barriers.

Children's learning.

Abstract: A new field of children's learning is emerging. This new field differs from the old in recognizing that children's learning includes active as well as passive mechanisms and qualitative as well as quantitative changes. Children's learning involves substantial variability of representations and strategies within individual children as well as across different children. The path of learning involves the introduction of new approaches as well as changes in the frequency of prior ones. The rate and the breadth of learning tend to occur at a human scale, intermediate between the extremes depicted by symbolic and connectionist models. Learning has many sources; one that is particularly promising for educational purposes is self-explanations. Overall, contemporary analyses show that learning and development have a great deal in common.

The Psychotherapist's Own Psychotherapy: Educating and Developing Psychologists.

Abstract: In this article, the author synthesizes 25 years of his research on the personal therapy of mental health professionals. The author summarizes the high prevalence of personal treatment, its use by seasoned practitioners, its personal and professional goals, its typically positive outcomes, and its lasting lessons concerning the practice of psychotherapy. Particular attention is devoted to the therapist's selection of a personal therapist and the conduct of treatment with patients who are themselves psychotherapists in comparison with patients who are laypersons. The cumulative results indicate that personal therapy is an emotionally vital, interpersonally dense, and professionally formative experience that should be central to the development of health care psychologists.

Psychology at the Intersection of Work and Family: Recommendations for Employers, Working Families, and Policymakers.

Abstract: Demographic data show that major changes have been occurring in the everyday lives of families over the last generation, with the majority of mothers of young children in the workforce and an increasing number of men and women assuming caregiving responsibilities for older relatives. Thus, the 2 primary identities of most adults, defined by their multiple family and work roles, need to be coordinated in ways that promote positive family outcomes, returns on investments for employers, and societal values. Despite changes in the workforce, the world of work is still largely organized for a family model that is increasingly rare--one with a stay-at-home caregiver. Recommendations based on psychological and other social science research are offered to align the needs of working families and employers.

Race and Genetics Controversies in Biomedical, Behavioral, and Forensic Sciences

Abstract: Among biomedical scientists, there is a great deal of controversy over the nature of race, the relevance of racial categories for research, and the proper methods of using racial variables. This article argues that researchers and scholars should avoid a binary-type argument, in which the question is whether to use race always or never. Researchers should instead focus on developing standards for when and how to use racial variables. The article then discusses 1 context, criminology, in which the use of racial variables in behavioral genetics research could be particularly problematic. If genetic studies of criminalized behavior use forensic DNA databanks or forensic genetic profiles, they will be confounded by the many racial biases of the law enforcement and penal system.

Enhancing professional competence through developmental approaches to supervision.

Abstract: There has been a recent increase in interest in defining and describing the competencies for professional practice in psychology. Perhaps the most important mechanism for enabling the acquisition of competencies is the process of supervision. This article takes the position, based on a review of relevant research in supervision and the author's experiences, that developmental theories of supervision have stimulated considerable research and provide a direction for future work in research and practice. It is argued that the most detailed of these theories, the Integrated Developmental Model, provides a useful framework for understanding how supervisees change over time and how various supervision environments (broadly) and supervision interventions (specifically) can enhance or detract from the development of professional competencies.

Race and ethnicity in the genome era: the complexity of the constructs.

Abstract: The vast amount of biological information that is now available through the completion of the Human Genome Project presents opportunities and challenges. The genomic era has the potential to advance an understanding of human genetic variation and its role in human health and disease. A challenge for genomics research is to understand the relationships between genomics, race, and ethnicity and the implications of uncovering these relationships. Robust and scholarly discourse on the concept of race and ethnicity in genomic research should be expanded to include social and behavioral scientists. Interdisciplinary research teams are needed in which psychologists, as well as other social and behavioral scientists, work collaboratively with geneticists and other natural scientists.

The Human Capacity for Growth Through Adversity.

Abstract: Bartone, P. T. (1999). Hardiness protects against war-related stress in Army Reserve forces. Consulting Psychology Journal, 51, 72–82. Bonanno, G. A. (2004). Loss, trauma, and human resilience: Have we underestimated the human capacity to thrive after extremely aversive events? American Psychologist, 59, 20–28. Khoshaba, D. M., & Maddi, S. R. (2001). HardiTraining (4th ed.). Newport Beach, CA: Hardiness Institute. Maddi, S. R. (1996). Personality theories: A comparative analysis (6th ed.). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. Maddi, S. R. (2002). The story of hardiness: Twenty years of theorizing, research, and practice. Consulting Psychology Journal, 54, 173–185. Maddi, S. R., & Khoshaba, D. M. (2001). HardiSurvey III-R: Test development and internet instruction manual (4th ed.). Newport Beach, CA: Hardiness Institute.