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Showing papers in "American Sociological Review in 1980"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This article found that differential recruitment is not merely a function of dispositional susceptibility, but is strongly influenced by structural proximity, availability, and affective interaction with movement members, and that a movement organization's network attributes function as an important determinant of its recruitment strategies and growth.
Abstract: Past examinations of differential recruitment to and the differential growth of social movements have typically sought explanation at a social psychological/motivational level of analysis. That focus has recently been called into question by scholars concerned with the process through which movement organizations expand their ranks and mobilize support for their causes. Yet, as Useem (1975) and Zald and McCarthy (1979) have noted, there has been little systematic research conducted on the details of the influence process. Drawing on data derived from a synthesis of existing research and two primary sources, this paper attempts to shed greater empirical and theoretical light on the movement recruitment process. The findings indicate that differential recruitment is not merely a function of dispositional susceptibility, but is strongly influenced by structural proximity, availability, and affective interaction with movement members. The findings also indicate that a movement organization's network attributes function as an important determinant of its recruitment strategies and growth.

1,078 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss the use of a new self-report measure in a national youth study and compare the race/class findings of this study with previous SRD research and with official arrest data, and examine the epidemiological and theoretical implications of these findings.
Abstract: This paper addresses the general question of whether or not the satisfactory resolution of the methodological criticisms of self-report research will result in greater consistency between self-reported and official data with respect to the race and class distributions of delinquent behavior. We review the specific methodological criticisms of self-report delinquency (SRD) research; discuss the use of a new SRD measure in a national youth study; compare the race/class findings of this study with previous SRD research and with official arrest data; and examine the epidemiological and theoretical implications of these findings. Both class and race differentials are found in this study. It appears likely that the differences between these findings and those in earlier SRD studies are a result of differences in the specific SRD measures used. Additionally, these findings suggest a logical connection between SRD and official measures, and they provide some insight into the mechanism whereby official data produce more extreme race and class (as well as age and sex) differences than do self-report measures. The results of this study also have implications for previous tests of theoretical propositions which used self-report delinquency data. In short, prior self-report measures may not have been sensitive enough to capture the theoretically important differences in delinquency involvement.

937 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors examined the shift toward "structural" explanations in recent studies of inequality and concluded that empirical studies grounded at the organizational level are more likely to inform current debates about the "structure of work" than is the growing body of research about structural effects on individual attainment or covariation among industrial/occupational characteristics.
Abstract: This essay examines the shift toward "structural" explanations in recent studies of inequality. After reviewing this body of research and some of its shortcomings, we examine its theoretical underpinnings, comparing "structuralist" perspectives on work organization derived from institutional economics and neo-Marxism to more orthodox accounts based on neoclassical and "industrialism" theories. This discussion suggests areas where the different perspectives overlap and diverge. We conclude that work arrangements within the firm and their trend are the focus of most "structural" perspectives on positional stratification; thus, empirical studies grounded at the organizational level are more likely to inform current debates about the "structure of work" than is the growing body of research about structural effects on individual attainment or covariation among industrial/occupational characteristics. Toward that end, an agenda for future research is outlined, focusing on three aspects of work organization: (a) the units which comprise the structure of work and the dimensions underlying economic segmentation; (b) the effects of sectoral differentiation on technical and administrative arrangements within firms; and (c) temporal changes in how enterprises organize production. We provide some illustrations of the kinds of empirical data and research hypotheses required to link research on segmentation and stratification more closely to studies of organizations.

739 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a revised index of political democracy that overcomes some of these limitations is presented, and the indicators of the revised index are analyzed by means of confirmatory factor analysis and the reliability of the measure is discussed.
Abstract: The empirical study of the causes and consequences of political democracy has been the subject of considerable research. Yet cumulative development of this research is hampered by the controversial aspects and limitations of the existing indices of political democracy. These issues concern the validity of the indicators, the unknown reliability, and the limited sample and temporal coverage of these indices. After a discussion of these issues, a revised index of political democracy that overcomes some of these limitations is presented. The indicators of the revised index are analyzed by means of confirmatory factor analysis and the reliability of the measure is discussed. The index is generally better than existing measures in reliability, sample size, and temporal coverage; but the remaining limitations of the index are reviewed. The moderate to high correlations of this index with other democracy indices support its external validity. Yet, the differences in empirical results possible by using different indices are demonstrated. Finally, there are two appendices. The first provides the technical details of the confirmatory factor analysis. The second appendix lists the values of the political democracy index.

650 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is shown that differential exposure to stress, while clearly of some importance, accounts for only a minor part of the status/distress relationship, and that a far more central role is played by class differences in responsiveness to stress.
Abstract: Although a negative relationship between socioeconomic position and psychological distress has consistently been documented in community surveys, we know very little about the determinants of this relationship. The dominant interpretation argues that distress is caused by exposure to stressful life experiences, that lower status people are highly exposed to this sort of experience, and that statistical adjustment for differential exposure can account for the higher rates of distress among lower status people. In this paper, a different interpretation is emphasized. It is shown that differential exposure to stress, while clearly of some importance, accounts for only a minor part of the status/distress relationship, and that a far more central role is played by class differences in responsiveness to stress-that is, by the fact that lower status people are more likely than middle and upper status people to develop symptoms of distress when exposed to problematic life experience. Several plausible interpretations of this differential responsiveness are presented and an analysis strategy developed to evaluate their relative contributions. Results of an empirical evaluation document the importance of social origins and mobility experiences as determinants of differential responsiveness to stress.

443 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explore the frames of reference that decision-makers employ in assessing the usefulness of social science research for their work and find that the relevance of research topic, research quality, conformity of results with expectations, orientation to action, and challenge to existing policy are positively associated with perceived likelihood of using a study.
Abstract: In an effort to contribute to an empirically based "sociology of knowledge application," this paper explores the frames of reference that decision-makers employ in assessing the usefulness of social science research for their work. Analysis of responses of 155 decision-makers in mental health fields to 50 actual research reports reveals five frames of reference: relevance of research topic, research quality, conformity of results with expectations, orientation to action, and challenge to existing policy. All frames are positively associated with perceived likelihood of using a study. Two significant interactions among the frames suggest that, in essence, decision-makers apply a "truth test" and a "utility test" in screening social science research. They judge truth on two bases: research quality and/or conformity with prior knowledge and expectations. They also assess utility on alternaive bases: feasible direction for action and/or challenge to current policy. The ways in which they apply research conclusions to their work is a broader, more diffuse, and wider-ranging process than many earlier investigators have recognized. In 1949, Robert Merton called for systematic study of applied social science and of the factors that facilitated or impeded its utilization for purposes of practical action. His luminous analysis discussed the cultural, organizational, situational, and cognitive contexts of applied social research and pointed to the need for empirical investigation of their implications for research use. He identified such dimen

324 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is found that the reciprocal relationship between education and age at 1st birth is dominated by the effect from education to age at1st birth with only a trivial effect in the other direction.
Abstract: The interplay between education and fertility has a significant influence on the roles women occupy when in their life cycle they occupy these roles and the length of time spent in these roles. The overall inverse relationship between education and fertility is well known; but little is known about the theoretical and empirical basis of this relationship. This paper explores the theoretical linkages between education and fertility and examines the relationships between the 2 at 3 stages in the life cycle. It is found that the reciprocal relationship between education and age at 1st birth is dominated by the effect from education to age at 1st birth with only a trivial effect in the other direction. Once the process of childbearing has begun education has essentially no direct effect on fertility; but it has a large indirect effect through age at 1st birth. (Authors)

274 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors investigates the theory, methods, and findings of animal behaviorists and social scientists studying dominance hierarchies in small groups and presents the results of a particular animal study and develops a general explanation as to how hierarchy structures arise.
Abstract: The author investigates the theory, methods, and findings of animal behaviorists and social scientists studying dominance hierarchies in small groups. In both disciplines: (1) the literature argues that the explanations of hierarchy structure are based upon differences in individual characteristics among group members; (2) although critical examination reveals that these explanations require stringent conditions to account for commonly occurring kinds of hierarchies in humans and animals, the available data indicate such conditions are not met; and (3) the hierarchy-formation process has not been adequately studied. In an attempt to alleviate the current problems in hierarchy research, I present the results of a particular animal study and develop a general explanation as to how hierarchy structures arise. This approach applies to both humans and animals and serves as a model of how the cumulative patterns of interactions among individuals produce group social structures.

254 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Data from a panel study of income dynamics are used to investigate 4 possible explanations of the contradictions and it is found that the dominant effects are from fertility to employment in the short run and from employment to fertility in the long run.
Abstract: Seemingly contradictory results have been reported recently on the causal relationship between fertility and female employment. Data from a panel study of income dynamics are used to investigate 4 possible explanations of the contradictions: 1) Multicollinearity in nonrecursive models. 2) Discrepancies between attitudes of intention and behavior. 3) Misspecification of models. 4) Differences between static and dynamic models. All 4 explanations are pertinent to the controversy. It is found that the dominant effects are from fertility to employment in the short run and from employment to fertility in the long run. Multicollinearity often is a serious problem in nonrecursive models. Dynamic models are much more informative than static models. Plans generally seem to be consequences more than determinants of behavior. Results (sometimes) depend upon how variables are measured upon what time intervals are used and upon aggregate trends and cycles and historical circumstances. Other substantive findings and general methodological issures are discussed briefly. (Authors)

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Examination of the effect of race composition on processing decisions for 881 sexual assaults in a large, Midwestern city showed that, compared to other defendants, black men who assaulted white women received more serious charges and were more likely to have their cases filed as felonies, receive executed sentences, and be incarcerated in the state penitentiary.
Abstract: Collins argues that sexual access, like other valuable commodities, is distributed according to relative power within a sexual stratification system. He predicts more serious official reactions to violations of the sexual stratification system in which men from less powerful groups sexually assault women from more powerful groups. Race continues to be an obvious correlate of stratified sexual access in America. But empirical studies have not assessed the cumulative effect of racial composition of victim-suspect dyads on processing outcomes in sexual assault cases. The present study examined the effect of race composition on processing decisions-from case report to final disposition-for 881 sexual assaults in a large, Midwestern city. Step-wise multiple regression analysis showed that, compared to other defendants, black men who assaulted white women received (1) more serious charges and (2) longer sentences, and were more likely to (3) have their cases filed as felonies, (4) receive executed sentences, and (5) be incarcerated in the state penitentiary. At the same time, black men who assaulted white women were no more likely than other suspects to be arrested or found guilty. The implications of the results for a sexual stratification theory of official reactions to sexual assault are discussed.

Journal ArticleDOI
Abstract: A rationale for investigating subcultures of firearms ownership is developed. Two gun-owning populations are investigated by using survey data for the State of Illinois, those who own guns for sport and those who own guns for protection. Models of individual level gun ownership for sport and for protection are constructed and tested. Sporting gun ownership appears to be subcultural. Sporting gun ownership can be predicted by using family socialization variables and indicators of contact among members of the subculture, independent of situational variables. Protective ownership has none of the trappings of a subculture. It does not respond to family socialization and indicators of contact with other people who own guns for protection. Further, there is no indication of a subculture of violence among protective gun owners. Violent attitudes and behavior do not predict protective gun ownership. In fact, a situational variable (county violent crime) was the only predictor of gun ownership for protection. Further, gun ownership for protection and gun ownership for sport were found to be independent events, with no joint probability of occurrence. This suggests that the impetus for a subculture of protective ownership could not be a logical extension of a subculture of firearms ownership for sport.

Book ChapterDOI
TL;DR: A systematic formulation of Weber's theory of the origins of large-scale capitalism, based upon the lectures given just before his death, is given in this article. But it does not consider the role of religious ideas and motivations in his early Protestant Ethic thesis and unlike his analyses of the world religions.
Abstract: A systematic formulation is given of Weber's theory of the origins of large-scale capitalism, based upon the lectures given just before his death. This last theory is predominantly institutional, unlike the emphasis upon religious ideas and motivations in his early Protestant Ethic thesis, and unlike his analyses of the world religions. Weber's institutional theory involves a sequence of causal conditions. The outcome of the sequence is capitalism characterized by the entrepreneurial organization of capital, rationalized technology, free labor, and unrestrained markets. Intermediate conditions are a calculable legal system and an economic ethic combining universal commercialization with the moderate pursuit of repetitive gains. These conditions are fostered by the bureaucratic state and by legal citizenship, and more remotely by a complex of administrative, military, and religious factors. The overall pattern is one in which numerous elements must be balanced in continuous conflict if economic development is to take place. Weber derived much of this scheme in explicit confrontation with Marxism. His conflict theory criticizes as well as deepens and extends a number of Marxian themes, including a theory of international capitalism which both criticizes and complements Wallerstein's theory of the world system.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, career differences by race and sex are analyzed and career trajectories are defined as trajectories of socioeconomic status and wages and are described by a linear differential equation model.
Abstract: In this paper, career differences by race and sex are analyzed. Careers are defined as trajectories of socioeconomic status and wages and are described by a linear differential equation model. It is assumed that the different groups defined by race and sex tend to be in different labor markets and economic sectors and to face different opportunity structures even within labor market divisions. This assumption guides predictions for and interpretation of results with respect to various aspects of career inequality: initial status and wage level; potential status and wage levels; effects of human capital, family background, and family of procreation variables on initial and potential wage and status levels; speed of advancement. Pooling of cross-sections and time-series techniques are used to estimate the model, with data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of the Labor Market Experience of Young Men and Women.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors argue that both conflict and functional theory point, at least implicitly, to the importance of the effect of unequal distribution of resources on the development of the self-constructing my argument through application of Mead' s theory of self to the case of stratification, which is compatible with several lines of theorizing in social psychology, including equity and status attribution theory.
Abstract: Stratified social orders are maintained through a wide variety of mechanisms, one being broad-based legitimation of the notion of unequal distribution of primary resources. My attempt to develop a set of propositions provides at least a partial explanation of how such legitimation is generated and maintained. I argue that both conflict and functional theory point, at least implicitly, to the importance of the effect of unequal distribution of resources on the development of the self-constructing my argument through application of Mead' s theory of the self to the case of stratification. This application is shown, in turn, to be compatible with several lines of theorizing in social psychology, including equity and status attribution theory. Once basic propositions are developed, I discuss ways in which major social institutions maintain legitimacy through their effect on the self and explore some possible sources of delegitimation.




Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors analyze the relationship between the status characteristics of criminal offenders and the sentences they receive, using data from ten federal district courts whose statutes and resources provide greater potential for the prosecution of the white-collar crimes of higher status offenders.
Abstract: While sociologists have long debated the relationship between the status characteristics of criminal offenders and the sentences they receive, they have done so with data sets drawn from state courts whose prosecutorial resources are focused almost entirely on low status defendants. Qualitative and quantitative data analyzed in this paper are drawn from ten federal district courts whose statutes and resources provide greater potential for the prosecution of the white-collar crimes of higher status offenders. Three questions are addressed: (1) Are there substantial jurisdictional differences in the prosecution of white-collar cases? if so, (2) Are there corresponding jurisdictional differences in the sentencing of white-collar cases? and (3) Within jurisdictions, are there further differences in the factors that influence sentencing decisions in white-collar as compared to other kinds of cases? The data are analyzed from a perspective that emphasizes organizational considerations: we conceptualize the criminal justice process as a loosely coupled system and the use of prosecutorial resources as proactive and reactive. We argue that the expanded prosecution of white-collar persons for their white-collar crimes requires a proactive prosecutorial policy and a tightening of the coupling between plea negotiations and sentencing decisions in the prosecutorial and judicial subsystems. Our quantitative analysis reveals that one district follows a uniquely proactive pattern. As expected, this proactive district also exhibits a unique leniency in the sentencing of college educated white-collar criminals that is related to earlier plea and charging decisions. A rather different and unanticipated pattern of leniency is found in this district for less educated white-collar offenders. A conclusion of this study is that there may be an inverse relationship between the volume of white-collar prosecutions and the severity with which they are sentenced.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This paper found that both the highly educated and the uneducated public show evidence of an underlying ideological predisposition, show remarkable stability in their attitudes, and show equal consistency or constraint between different attitude issues.
Abstract: Philip Converse and other theorists have argued that the public at large does not have meaningful and stable attitudes. Specifically, they have argued that the public's attitudes, as compared to those of the political "elite," show less stability over time and less consistency between issues and are less likely to be based upon an underlying ideological predisposition. These hypotheses have been supported, generally, by computing correlations between attitude questions and comparing them between public and elite samples. The present paper examines all three hypotheses using a structural equation approach. This allows us to: (a) test for a single common underlying ideological construct; (b) separate ideological stability from issuespecific stability; and (c) use unstandardized structural coefficients to make between-sample comparisons. Using panel data from 1972-1974-1976 national surveys, we find that both the highly educated and the uneducated public show evidence of an underlying ideological predisposition, show remarkable stability in their attitudes, and show equal consistency or constraint between different attitude issues.



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A randomized experiment with over 2,000 ex-offenders in the states of Texas and Georgia in which unemployment benefits were extended to individuals immediately upon release from prison was conducted by.
Abstract: Building on perspectives from sociology, criminology, and economics, this article reports findings from a randomized experiment undertaken with over 2,000 ex-offenders in the states of Texas and Georgia in which unemployment benefits were extended to individuals immediately upon release from prison. The analysis focuses on the endogenous relationships (over a one-year follow-up period) between these "transfer payments," unemployment, arrests for property and nonproperty crimes, and the resulting time spent in jail or prison. By and large, the hypotheses derived from a priori theory are supported by the data. (abstract Adapted from Source: American Sociological Review, 1980. Copyright © 1980 by the American Sociological Association) Ex-Offender Texas Crime Causes Poverty Socioeconomic Factors Unemployment Factors Employment Factors Adult Crime Adult Offender 07-02

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It is argued that aggregate measures (means computed on distributions of individual scores) may be valid indicators of organizational properties which also enable an investigator to determine whether statistical relations among organizational measures arise from organization- level, as opposed to individual-level, causal processes.
Abstract: In this paper, we argue that aggregate measures (means computed on distributions of individual scores) may be valid indicators of organizational properties which also enable an investigator to determine whether statistical relations among organizational measures arise from organization-level, as opposed to individual-level, causal processes. We review certain statistical aggregation issues as these pertain to organizational analysis, and we propose Hauser's path analytic model of analysis of covariance as a device for separating individual and structural effects. These methods are then applied to data gathered in a survey of 20 social service organizations. We specify and estimate a causal model wherein administrative intensity, lateral communications, and decentralization of decision making are endogenous variables. We find that a number of "total" effects on these properties mask quite different-and in some cases contradictory-processes at individual and organization levels. Among other inferences, we suggest that the organizationaland individual-level influences we observe on decentralization raise questions regarding certain widely accepted interpretations of this property. We recommend that analysts working with aggregate measures adopt similar procedures in order to fully exploit their data for the insights that may be gained into multilevel organizational processes.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Data from a detailed study of Jews in an American community suggest a revised explanation that focuses upon four protective social processes: association of alcohol abuse with non-Jews, integration of moderate drinking norms, practices and symbolism during childhood by means of religious and secular ritual, and a repertoire of techniques to avoid excess drinking under social pressure.
Abstract: Twenty-five years have passed since the last major study of Jewish drinking patterns. During that time Jews have drifted away from the Orthodox religious affiliations which the earlier studies (Snyder, 1958; 1978) found to be important in maintaining low alcohol problem rates, and yet these rates remain low. Data from a detailed study of Jews in an American community suggest a revised explanation that focuses upon four protective social processes: (1) association of alcohol abuse with non-Jews; (2) integration of moderate drinking norms, practices and symbolism during childhood by means of religious and secular ritual; (3) restriction of most adult primary relationships to other moderate drinkers; and (4) a repertoire of techniques to avoid excess drinking under social pressure. The results are discussed from the perspective of informal social controls.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, the relationship between sex and deviance is investigated using a single data set of 1,118 instances from the American Sociological Association (ASA) and comparable statistics.
Abstract: Forty-four studies reporting data on the relationship between sex and indicators of deviance/criminality are reduced to a single data base. Contingency tables (1,118) are generated from the extant empirical literature on sex and deviance and comparable statistics are calculated, using instances where the sex-deviance relationship was reported for specific categories of class position, age, data type, year of study, level of family intactness, race, place of residence, and type of offense. The findings from 1,118 instances are summarized, and patterns are discussed. The overall results indicate that the magnitude of the relationship between sex and deviance is contingent on the year the data were gathered, the type of data used, the percentage classified as deviant in a particular table, whether the indicator of deviance is a single behavior or composite index, race, and the specific offense. Moreover, analysis demonstrates that trends in the sex-deviance relationship over time vary by type of data and by population group. (abstract Adapted from Source: American Sociological Review, 1980. Copyright © 1980 by the American Sociological Association) Literature Review Adult Female Adult Male Adult Offender Adult Crime Adult Deviance Female Crime Female Offender Male Crime Male Offender Gender Differences Crime Rates 07-02

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Men who experience a disorderly transition to adulthood also experience lower earnings returns to their education, as well as substantial deficits in their total earnings as mentioned in this paper, while no difference in occupational attainments are observed.
Abstract: Individuals in American society tend to agree that it is normatively appropriate behavior to order the events marking the transition to adulthood so that formal schooling is completed first, and so that both school completion and beginning of first job occur prior to marriage. This paper reports on the testing of the hypothesis that men who order their transition events in a nonnormative fashion experience reduced occupational status and earnings returns in their later careers. The study is based on the responses of 18,370 ever-married white males aged 20 to 65, who were employed in the experienced civilian labor force, and were interviewed in the 1973 Occupational Changes in a Generation II survey. While no difference in occupational attainments are observed, men who experience a disorderly transition to adulthood also experience lower earnings returns to their education, as well as substantial deficits in their total earnings.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors reviewed a series of examinations of three key principles of differential association: the contingency principle, the socioemotional principle, and the principle that criminal acts occur as a function of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of the law.
Abstract: The paper reviews a series of examinations of three key principles of differential association: the contingency principle, the socioemotional principle, and the principle that criminal acts occur as a function of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of the law. The studies sampled a variety of correctional clients in a variety of correctional settings and in each there were explicit attempts to exert direct experimental control over the factors of theoretical interest as well as competing factors. In total, the findings support both the causal and the practical significance of differential association while documenting (a) structural effects on the contingencies within the service system, and (b) the effects of those contingencies on the criminal attitudes and behavior of individuals. The discussion critically contrasts such systematic testing of assumptions with related programs which have been operating for years with limited theoretical and practical returns. The paper suggests, in total, that systematic program evaluation provides the tools-and the opportunity-for a bridging of the gaps between general sociology and general psychology and between social science theory and social service.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a theory explicitly predicting cooptive uses of corporate directorates from the structure of the market in which firms operate is presented, based on a network model of structural autonomy.
Abstract: Moving away from description of directorate ties as a cooptive device, we test a theory explicitly predicting cooptive uses of corporate directorates from the structure of the market in which firms operate. The theory is based on a network model of structural autonomy. It takes as exogenous information the sales and purchase transactions between establishments in sectors of the economy, locates those sectors most constraining pricing discretion within each sector, then predicts where establishments should be connected by interorganizational relations if such relations are intended to coopt market constraints. Using data on interorganizational relations as directorate ties (establishments connected through corporate boards by ownership, direct interlocking, and/or indirect financial interlocking) in the 1967 American economy, we find the theory's predictions to be accurate. Each of the three types of directorate ties tends to occur where there is market constraint and tends not to occur in the absence of constraint. Further, the three types of ties are coordinated as multiplex directorate ties. Where establishments in one sector constrain those in another, there is a strong tendency for all three types of directorate ties to exist between the two sectors. Where there is no such constraint, all three tend to be absent. Support is weaker for intrasector in comparison to intersector cooptation via directorate ties. Whatever the cooptive intent of the directorate ties described, they are patterned as if they were intended to coopt market constraints on corporate pricing discretion.