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Showing papers in "Angewandte Chemie in 1965"



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The empirical parameters of the polarity of solvents which have been determined recently are reviewed in this paper, where the theoretical principles of the solvent effect on the reaction rate and light absorption of organic compounds are briefly described.
Abstract: The empirical parameters of the polarity of solvents which have been determined recently are reviewed: Y-values (Winstein, Grunwald), X-values (Gielen, Nasielski), Ω-values (Berson, Hamlet, Mueller), Z-values (Kosower), ET-values (Dimroth, Reichardt, Siepmann, Bohlmann), R- and S-values (Brownstein). Their field of application and interrelationships are discussed. The theoretical principles of the solvent effect on the reaction rate and light absorption of organic compounds are briefly described, and mention is made of attempts to correlate the physical characteristics of the solvent with the empirical parameters.

390 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
Ivar Ugi1, U. Fetzer1, Ulrich Dr Eholzer1, H. Knupfer1, K. Offermann1 
TL;DR: In der Regel ist dies nach Ausbeute und Arbeitsaufwand die gunstigste Methode, vor allem fur die Darstellung groserer Mengen (> 1 Mol) von Isonitrilen as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Unter den vielen bekannten Bildungsweisen von Isonitrilen blieben die vor rund hundert Jahren entdeckten klassischen Isonitril-Synthesen nach Gautier und Hofmann bis vor kurzem der einzige praparative Zugang zu Isonitrilen. Beide Methoden sind nicht allgemein anwendbar und nur in Ausnahmefallen ergiebig. Neuerdings sind Isonitrile durch Wasserabspaltung aus N-monosubstituierten Formamiden bequem erhaltlich; als Mittel zur Wasserabspaltung dienen Acylhalogenide in Gegenwart von Basen. Die Wasserabspaltung mit Phosgen und tertiaren Aminen zeichnet sich dabei durch einen besonders weiten Anwendungsbereich aus. In der Regel ist dies nach Ausbeute und Arbeitsaufwand die gunstigste Methode, vor allem fur die Darstellung groserer Mengen (> 1 Mol) von Isonitrilen.

193 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The presence of diimine in solution can be shown conclusively by the stereospecific cishydrogenation of symmetrical multiple bonds as discussed by the authors, which has been attributed to hydrazine.
Abstract: The presence of diimine in solution can be shown conclusively by the stereospecific cishydrogenation of symmetrical multiple bonds. Apart from reactions which have hitherto been attributed to hydrazine, this review deals primarily with the various sources and secondary reactions of diimine.

183 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, theoretischen Grundlagen des Losungsmitteleinflusses auf Reaktionsgeschwindigkeit und Lichtabsorption organischer Verbindungen werden kurz erlautert und Versuche erwahnt, physikalische Kennzahlen der Losungsittel with den empirischen Parametern in Beziehung zu bringen.
Abstract: Es wird eine Ubersicht uber die in den letzten Jahren ermittelten empirischen Parameter der Losungsmittelpolaritat gegeben: Y-Werte (Winstein, Grunwald), X-Werte (Gielen, Nasielski), Ω-Werte (Berson, Hamlet, Mueller), Z-Werte (Kosower), ET-Werte (Dimroth, Reichardt, Siepmann, Bohlmann), R- und S-Werte (Brownstein). Ihr Anwendungsbereich und ihre Korrelationen untereinander werden diskutiert. — Die theoretischen Grundlagen des Losungsmitteleinflusses auf Reaktionsgeschwindigkeit und Lichtabsorption organischer Verbindungen werden kurz erlautert und Versuche erwahnt, physikalische Kennzahlen der Losungsmittel mit den empirischen Parametern in Beziehung zu bringen.

175 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The term silylation is used to denote the introduction of a triorganosilyl moiety, especially the trimethylsilyl species, into organic compounds.
Abstract: The term silylation is used to denote the introduction of a triorganosilyl moiety, especially the trimethylsilyl species, into organic compounds. - Silylated amino acids and sugars are particularly suitable for the syntheses of peptides and saccharides, respectively, since the silyl group can be cleaved off readily under mild conditions. Many diamines undergo ring closure, e.g. with phosgene, only after silylation. - O-silylated lactim ethers (i.e. cyclic imino ethers) are converted into N-alkyl derivatives by alkyl halides. Compounds with a strongly polarized SiC bond may be used for chain extension. Silyl esters of halogeno fatty acids yield lactones with silver cyanate. - Trimethylsilyl azide is thermally very stable and behaves like organic azides. It reacts with acetylenic compounds, trialkylphosphines, and triarylphosphines to yield silylated triazole derivatives, trialkylphosphines N-silylimines, and triarylphosphines to yield silylated triazole dervatives, trialkylphosphine N-silylimines, and triarylphosphine N-silylimines, respectively, from which the silyl groups can be removed under mild conditions.

130 citations




Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Silylierung wird die Einfuhrung eines Triorganosilyl-Restes, speziell the TrimethylsilylGruppe, in organische Verbindungen bezeichnet as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Als Silylierung wird die Einfuhrung eines Triorganosilyl-Restes, speziell der Trimethylsilyl-Gruppe, in organische Verbindungen bezeichnet. Silylierte Aminosauren eignen sich fur Peptidsynthesen, silylierte Zucker fur Saccharidsynthesen besonders gut, da die Silylgruppe unter milden Bedingungen leicht abspaltbar ist. — Bei manchen Diaminen wird ein Ringschlus, z. B. mit Phosgen, erst durch Silylierung moglich. — O-Silylierte Lactimather werden durch Alkylhalogenide in N-Alkyl-Derivate ubergefuhrt. Verbindungen mit stark polarisierter Si–C-Bindung konnen zu Kettenverlangerungen dienen. Halogenfettsauresilylester ergeben mit Silbercyanat Lactone. — Das thermisch sehr stabile Trimethylsilylazid reagiert wie Organo-azide. Mit Acetylen-Verbindungen, Trialkyl- oder Triarylphosphinen entstehen silylierte Triazol-Derivate bzw. silylierte Trialkyl- und Triarylphosphinimine, aus denen der Silylrest schonend abgespalten werden kann.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Diimin last sich in Losung durch die stereospezifische cis-hydrierung symmetrischer Mehrfachbindungen eindeutig nachweisen as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Diimin last sich in Losung durch die stereospezifische cis-Hydrierung symmetrischer Mehrfachbindungen eindeutig nachweisen. Auser mit Reaktionen, die bisher dem Hydrazin zugeschrieben wurden, befast sich der Uberblick vor allem mit den verschiedenen Quellen fur Diimin und mit dessen Folgereaktionen.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: An attempt is made to create a basis for the understanding of flavin- (Vitamin B2-) dependent oxidations in terms of molecular structure.
Abstract: An attempt is made to create a basis for the understanding of flavin- (Vitamin B2-) dependent oxidations in terms of molecular structure. The main points of this survey can be summarized as follows: (a) The flavins must be differentiated according to their redox states (quinone state, radical state, hydroquinone state), since configuration, energy content of the tautomeric forms, metal affinity etc., alter drastically during reduction. – (b) The methyl group on C-8 of the flavoquinone is reactive. – (c) The electron transfer properties of the flavin system frequently depend on the coupling of secondary redox systems to the apoprotein. This interaction thermodynamically stabilizes the half-reduced state of the flavin. – (d) Numerous novel flavin types, among them stabilized free radicals, have become available through syntheses at the dihydro stage. – (e) Reaction of the flavin radical with O2 is slow as long as no disproportionation occurs, i.e. the fast flavin autoxidation proceeds via the dihydro state. – (f) The flavin nucleus gains affinity for heavy metal ions only by the acceptance of one, and only one, electron. – (g) Redox activity and contact with the flavin coenzyme have been confirmed for Fe and Mo, which occur in flavoproteins. The properties of the metal coordination sphere are determined primarily by sulfur-containing groups of the apoprotein.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, die Umylidierung ermoglicht die Darstellung von Phosphoniumsalzen und Phosphinalkylenen.
Abstract: Phosphoniumsalze konnen als Bronstedsche Sauren, Phosphinalkylene als korrespondierende Basen aufgefast werden. Zwischen beiden stellt sich ein Gleichgewicht ein. Diese „Umylidierung” ermoglicht die Darstellung von Phosphoniumsalzen und Phosphinalkylenen.— Auserdem werden andere Methoden zur Gewinnung von Vertretern der beiden Stoffklassen angegeben.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, it was shown that alkylidenephosphoranes can be obtained by transylidation, and other methods are also given for the preparation of members of both classes.
Abstract: Phosphonium salts may be regarded as Bronsted acids, and alkylidenephosphoranes as the conjugate bases. Compounds of the two classes exist in equilibrium with each other. Phosphonium salts and alkylidenephosphoranes can be obtained by this “transylidation”. Other methods are also given for the preparation of members of both classes.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a discussion of the physical properties and current ideas on the structure of fused salts is followed by a report on the solubilities of gases, salts and metals.
Abstract: Apart from being of interest for physicochemical investigations, ionic liquids are a very important supplement to the non-aqueous and water-like solvents. The present discussion of the physical properties and current ideas on the structure of fused salts is followed by a report on the solubilities of gases, salts and metals. Our knowledge of fused salt baths and their use in electrochemical and electrometallurgical processes has recently been considerably expanded. Special attention is drawn to chemical reactions in fused electrolytes. Fused salts can also act as catalysts, so that they may often be advantageous reaction media for synthesis, if not the only media which can be used.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a trifunctional mixture of mixed-ring complexes was used to obtain a stable diazonium fluoroborate, which was then used to synthesize a stable DFA. Chemical and physical properties of such mixed-round complexes provide evidence for inter-annular electronic effects transmitted through the metal ion.
Abstract: Certain metal acetylacetonates undergo reactions characteristic of aromatic systems. Outstanding among these are electrophilic substitutions and the formation of a stable diazonium fluoroborate. Unsymmetrically substituted chelates have been prepared by stepwise substitution of trifunctional complexes. Chemical and physical properties of such mixed-ring complexes provide evidence for intramolecular interannular electronic effects transmitted through the metal ion.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The nature of these sequences, operative in micro-organisms growing on C3- and C2-compounds, is discussed in outline, and the mode of regulation of one of them (the glyoxylate cycle) is examined in detail.
Abstract: In addition to catabolic and anabolic pathways, which enable nutrients to enter and to be withdrawn from the central routes of metabolism, enzymic sequences operate to ensure that intermediates, removed from these central routes in the course of biosynthesis, are replenished. These obligatory pathways of replenishment are generically designated “anaplerotic sequences”. The nature of these sequences, operative in micro-organisms growing on C3- and C2-compounds, is discussed in outline, and the mode of regulation of one of them (the glyoxylate cycle) is examined in detail.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, ein Uberblick uber die Fortschritte der Chemie der Organoheterosiloxane gegeben wird eine new Berucksichtigung neuester praparativer und spektroskopischer Ergebnisse.
Abstract: Unter Berucksichtigung neuester praparativer und spektroskopischer Ergebnisse wird ein Uberblick uber die Fortschritte der Chemie der Organoheterosiloxane gegeben. Im Mittelpunkt steht die Diskussion der Heterosiloxan-Struktureinheit SiOX, deren Bindungsverhaltnisse sich — in Abhangigkeit vom Heteroatom X — charakteristisch von denen der reinen Siloxan-Brucken SiOSi unterscheiden.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In the total synthesis of steroids on the industrial scale, three factors are important: stereoselectivity of the reactions used, resolution of racemic intermediates at the earliest possible stage, and convergence of the synthesis as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: In the total synthesis of steroids on the industrial scale, three factors are important: stereoselectivity of the reactions used, resolution of racemic intermediates at the earliest possible stage, and convergence of the synthesis Theoretical advances and wider practical experience in the chemistry of polycyclic compounds have recently led to the development of the first syntheses which are suitable for the industrial production of steroid hormones

Journal ArticleDOI
Leon Velluz1, M. Legrand1
TL;DR: An apparatus first described in 1961 for the measurement of circular dichroism down to 220 mμ has been improved and its range extended down to 185 mμ, and a more extensive study of protein structures was developed.
Abstract: An apparatus first described in 1961 for the measurement of circular dichroism down to 220 mμ has been improved and its range extended down to 185 mμ. Some examples are given in the field of dienes, conjugated ketones, and aromatic chromophores. A more extensive study of protein structures was developed with the following results: (a) helical polypeptides show a complex dichroism in the far ultraviolet with three components (192 mμ, 204 mμ, 225 mμ), characteristic of the helical array of peptide groups; (b) human serum albumin shows a very similar curve of dichroism and is 60% helical; (c) urea denaturation, as judged by dichroism, is a reversible phenomenon; (d) a solvent such as chloroethanol increases the helical content of human serum albumin and clupein and has only a very small action on poly-L-glutamic acid; (e) the rupture of SS bonds in human serum albumin favors the attack of denaturing agents such as urea; (f) detergents help to maintain the rigid structure of human serum albumin after the rupture of SS bonds.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the Fritsch-Buttenberg-Wiechell rearrangement was used for α-elimination of low-membered cyclic olefins.
Abstract: Eliminations from olefins are very often initiated by bases, and usually lead to formation of acetylene derivatives. In view of the numerous side-reactions and subsequent additions or rearrangments observed, the nature of the base used is of considerable significance. Organometallic bases are very versatile. In addition to dehydrohalogenation, dehalogenation by metals, and also thermolytic and photolytic eliminations. (e.g. the retrodiene reaction with exchange of substituents) are discussed. Elimination from low-membered cyclic olefins yields cycloalkynes having strained ring-systems, and the existence of these can be demonstrated by trapping them. The mechanisms known for β-elimination (E2, E1 and E1cB) occur also in the case of olefins; however – due to the sp2-hybridization of the carbon atoms taking part – they are realized with different rates of reaction relative to saturated compounds. α-Eliminations from olefines having aryl residues in the β-position lead to formation of arylacetylenes by rearrangement of the carbon skeleton. The mechanism of this reaction, which is known as the Fritsch-Buttenberg-Wiechell rearrangement, is discussed in considerable detail, and several variations of the reaction are considered. According to present-day knowledge carbenes are involved in α-eliminations only when both β-positions of the olefin are occupied by aliphatic substituents, or when they are occupied by aromatic residues where rearrangement to acetylenes is impossible for steric reasons (as for example with 9-chloromethylenefluorene). With organolithium compounds a number of dehydrohalogenations, which are formally β-eliminations, actually proceed via deprotonation on the halogenbearing carbon atom (α-metallation). α-Metallations are the rate-determining steps when ether is used as solvent, but proceed quickly in tetrahydrofuran even at low temperatures. Compounds of the type may be prepared by this method and are recognized as intermediates in α-eliminations.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, a.α-Eliminierung bedeutet das Entfernen zweier Substituenten vom gleichen Kohlenstoffatom.
Abstract: α-Eliminierung bedeutet das Entfernen zweier Substituenten vom gleichen Kohlenstoffatom. Die heutige Kenntnis solcher Reaktionen, ihrer Zwischenstufen und Endprodukte, wird zusammengefast. Die Frage nach dem Auftreten von Carbenen und nach der Rolle metallorganischer (Carbanion-)Zwischenstufen steht dabei im Mittelpunkt.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The ionische Flussigkeit is nicht nur fur physikalisch-chemische Untersuchungen interessant, sondern vor allem eine wichtige Erganzung der nichtwasrigen and wasserahnlichen Losungsmittel as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Die ionische Flussigkeit ist nicht nur fur physikalisch-chemische Untersuchungen interessant, sondern vor allem eine wichtige Erganzung der nichtwasrigen und wasserahnlichen Losungsmittel. Nach einer Besprechung physikalischer Eigenschaften und derzeit gelaufiger Vorstellungen uber die Struktur geschmolzener Salze wird uber die Loslichkeit von Gasen, Salzen und Metallen berichtet. Sowohl uber Bader aus geschmolzenen Salzen selbst, als auch uber deren Verwendung bei elektrochemischen und elektrometallurgischen Prozessen wurden in letzter Zeit die Kenntnisse wesentlich erweitert. Besondere Aufmerksamkeit gilt den bisher wenig beachteten chemischen Reaktionen in geschmolzenen Elektrolyten. Salzschmelzen konnen auch als Katalysatoren wirken. Danach scheinen Salzschmelzen oft ein sehr vorteilhaftes, wenn nicht das einzige brauchbare Reaktionsmedium fur Synthesen zu sein.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a review of cyclohexanoid compounds capable of existing in two or more stable conformations is presented, with a focus on cyclo-hexanoids.
Abstract: By “Conformational Analysis” is meant the analysis of the physical and chemical properties of a compound in terms of its preferred “conformations”, ie rotational arrangements about single bonds This particular review deals with cyclohexanoid compounds capable of existing in two or more stable conformations

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this paper, present-day knowledge of α-Elimination reactions, their intermediates, and end-products is reviewed, with particular emphasis on the question of the occurrence of carbenes and the role of organometallic (carbanion) intermediates.
Abstract: α-Elimination denotes the removal of two substituents from the same carbon atom. Present-day knowledge of these reactions, their intermediates, and end-products is reviewed, with particular emphasis on the question of the occurrence of carbenes and the role of organometallic (carbanion) intermediates.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, a Ubersicht mochte folgendes herausstellen: Die chemischen Eigenschaften der Flavine mussen nach Redoxstufen (Chinonstufe, Radikalstufes, Hydrochinonthufe) differenziert werden, denn bei der Reduktion andern sich Planaritat, Energieinhalt der Tautomerformen, Metall-Affinitat usw. drastisch.
Abstract: Es wird versucht, aus neueren chemischen und biochemischen Daten eine Basis fur das Verstandnis Flavin-(Vitamin-B2-) abhangiger Oxydation aufzuzeigen. Diese Ubersicht mochte folgendes herausstellen: Die chemischen Eigenschaften der Flavine mussen nach Redoxstufen (Chinonstufe, Radikalstufe, Hydrochinonstufe) differenziert werden, denn bei der Reduktion andern sich Planaritat, Energieinhalt der Tautomerformen, Metall-Affinitat usw. drastisch. — Die Methylgruppe an C-8 der Flavochinone ist reaktionsfahig. — Die Elektronentransfer-Eigenschaften des Flavin-Systems hangen oft von der Kopplung an sekundare Redox-Systeme im Apoprotein ab. Diese Wechselwirkung stabilisiert die halbreduzierte Stufe des Flavins thermodynamisch. — Synthesen in der Dihydrostufe machen zahlreiche neue Flavin-Typen, u. a. stabilisierte freie Radikale, zuganglich. — Das Flavinradikal reagiert nur langsam mit O2, solange es nicht disproportionieren kann, d. h. die schnelle Flavin-Autoxydation verlauft uber die Dihydrostufe. — Der Flavinkern gewinnt erst durch Aufnahme eines und nur eines Elektrons Affinitat zu Schwermetallionen. — Redox-Aktivitat und Kontakt mit dem Flavocoenzym sind fur die in Flavoproteinen vorkommenden Metalle Fe und Mo sichergestellt. Die Eigenschaften der Metall-Koordinationssphare werden in erster Linie durch schwefelhaltige Gruppen des Apoproteins bestimmt.