Showing papers in "Annals of The American Academy of Political and Social Science in 2008"
TL;DR: A smart power strategy combines hard and soft power resources as discussed by the authors, which is the ability to affect others to obtain the outcomes one wants through attraction rather than coercion or payment, is the capability of a country's soft power.
Abstract: Soft power is the ability to affect others to obtain the outcomes one wants through attraction rather than coercion or payment. A country's soft power rests on its resources of culture, values, and policies. A smart power strategy combines hard and soft power resources. Public diplomacy has a long history as a means of promoting a country's soft power and was essential in winning the cold war. The current struggle against transnational terrorism is a struggle to win hearts and minds, and the current overreliance on hard power alone is not the path to success. Public diplomacy is an important tool in the arsenal of smart power, but smart public diplomacy requires an understanding of the roles of credibility, self-criticism, and civil society in generating soft power.
1,138 citations
TL;DR: Public diplomacy, as the diplomacy of the public, not of the government, intervenes in this global public sphere, laying the ground for traditional forms of diplomacy to act beyond the strict negotiation of power relationships by building on shared... as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The public sphere is the space of communication of ideas and projects that emerge from society and are addressed to the decision makers in the institutions of society. The global civil society is the organized expression of the values and interests of society. The relationships between government and civil society and their interaction via the public sphere define the polity of society. The process of globalization has shifted the debate from the national domain to the global debate, prompting the emergence of a global civil society and of ad hoc forms of global governance. Accordingly, the public sphere as the space of debate on public affairs has also shifted from the national to the global and is increasingly constructed around global communication networks. Public diplomacy, as the diplomacy of the public, not of the government, intervenes in this global public sphere, laying the ground for traditional forms of diplomacy to act beyond the strict negotiation of power relationships by building on shared...
936 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present and critically evaluate attempts to theorize and conceptualize public diplomacy within several disciplines, including international relations, strategic studies, diplomatic studies, public relations, and communication.
Abstract: This work presents and critically evaluates attempts to theorize and conceptualize public diplomacy within several disciplines, including international relations, strategic studies, diplomatic studies, public relations, and communication. It also examines research methods used to investigate public diplomacy, including models, paradigms, case studies, and comparative analysis. The work identifies promising directions as well as weaknesses and gaps in existing knowledge and methodology and outlines a new research agenda. The presented analysis and examples suggest that only a systematic multidisciplinary effort and close collaboration between researchers and practitioners can lead to a coherent theory of public diplomacy.
458 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the relationship between parent behaviors, parenting style, and how a family functions with respect to the development of childhood overweight is discussed, and the impact of specific parent behaviors within the context of parenting style and family functioning needs to be explored.
Abstract: This article discusses the relationship between parent behaviors, parenting style, and how a family functions with respect to the development of childhood overweight. Parents can influence a child's weight through specific feeding and activity practices and perhaps more broadly through their parenting style and management of family functioning. These more global influences of parenting style and family functioning provide a framework in which specific parent behaviors can be interpreted by the child. Therefore, understanding the impact of specific parent behaviors within the context of parenting style and family functioning needs to be explored. This article highlights the pervasive influence of parents around the development of dietary habits, and suggests that additional efforts to examine the interaction between specific feeding behaviors and parenting style/family functioning should be promoted to better inform the development of interventions that may help stem the growing prevalence of obesity among our children.
432 citations
TL;DR: The psychological process of terrorism involvement is a complex psychosocial process that comprises at least three seemingly distinct phases: becoming involved, being involved, and disengaging as mentioned in this paper, which may or may not result in subsequent de-radicalization.
Abstract: Attempts to profile terrorists have failed resoundingly, leaving behind a poor (and unfair) impression of the potential for a sound psychological contribution to understanding the terrorist However, recent work in the area has delivered promising and exciting starting points for a conceptual development in understanding the psychological process across all levels of terrorist involvement Involvement in terrorism is a complex psychosocial process that comprises at least three seemingly distinct phases: becoming involved, being involved—synonymous with engaging in unambiguous terrorist activity—and disengaging (which may or may not result in subsequent de-radicalization) A critical implication of these distinctions is the recognition that each of them may contain unique, or phase-specific, implications for counterterrorism An argument is made for greater consideration of the disengagement phase with a clearer role for psychological research to inform and enhance practical counterterrorism operations
420 citations
TL;DR: Public diplomacy is a term much used but seldom subjected to rigorous analysis as mentioned in this paper, which draws heavily on a report commissioned by the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office in the early 1990s.
Abstract: Public diplomacy is a term much used but seldom subjected to rigorous analysis. This article—which draws heavily on a report commissioned by the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office in the sprin...
357 citations
TL;DR: The authors reviewed the literature on segmented assimilation and alternative theoretical models on the adaptation of the second generation, summarize the theoretical framework developed in the course of the Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study, and present evidence from its third survey in South Florida bearing on alternative hypotheses.
Abstract: The authors review the literature on segmented assimilation and alternative theoretical models on the adaptation of the second generation, summarize the theoretical framework developed in the course of the Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study, and present evidence from its third survey in South Florida bearing on alternative hypotheses. The majority of second-generation youth are progressing educationally and occupationally, but a significant minority is left behind. The latter group is not distributed randomly across nationalities but corresponds closely to predictions based on immigrant parents' human capital, family type, and modes of incorporation. Members of the second generation, whether successful or unsuccessful, learn English and American culture, but it makes a big difference whether they assimilate by joining the middle class or the marginalized, and largely racialized, population at the bottom of the society. Ethnographic narratives put into perspective quantitative results and highlight ...
278 citations
TL;DR: It is argued that advancing smart power has become a national security imperative, driven both by long-term structural changes in international conditions and by short-term failures of the current administration.
Abstract: This article pushes beyond hard power and soft power to insist on smart power, defined as the capacity of an actor to combine elements of hard power and soft power in ways that are mutually reinfor...
252 citations
TL;DR: In recent years, China has sought to supplement its traditional use of hard power with soft power, and thus the Chinese government has paid more and more attention to public diplomacy as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: In recent years, China has sought to supplement its traditional use of hard power with soft power, and thus the Chinese government has paid more and more attention to public diplomacy. Chinese governments have previously demonstrated a limited understanding of public diplomacy, seeing it either as external propaganda or a form of internal public affairs, but this has not prevented China from becoming a skilled public diplomacy player. Key aspects of traditional Chinese culture and politics have presented major obstacles for Chinese public diplomacy. In comparison to the United States, China needs an enduring and effective public diplomacy strategy and needs to improve its skills to make full use of the modern media. The peaceful rise/peaceful development policy in Chinese grand strategy has sought to integrate Chinese hard power and soft power to create a soft rise for China.
249 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the relevance of place branding as a political phenomenon in international politics was examined, and the connections between place branding and international politics were mapped out by looking at three examples.
Abstract: This article examines the relevance of place branding as a political phenomenon in international politics. After setting place branding in a historical and conceptual context, it maps out the connections between branding and international politics by looking at three examples. First, it examines the challenges facing the European Union to strengthen its image as a global player. Second, it analyzes the efforts of the United States to deal with its collapsing image in the aftermath of its failing “war on terror” and military intervention in Iraq. Third, it examines negative place branding by focusing on the Borat movie that upset Kazakhstan in 2006 and the cartoon crisis that erupted in Denmark in September 2005. This article also aims to situate the practice of place branding in a broader analytical context. It argues that place branding is part of a wider spectrum of postmodern power, where soft power and public diplomacy also have their place.
244 citations
TL;DR: The authors argue that both monologue and dialogue are essential public diplomacy tools and that collaboration is a third layer of public diplomacy that should also be examined, defined as initiatives that feature cross-national participation in a joint venture or project with a clearly defined goal.
Abstract: For a number of years, commentators and professionals have noted that effective public diplomacy requires that state and private actors communicate with the people of other nations by moving from monologue to dialogue. This article argues that both monologue and dialogue are essential public diplomacy tools and that collaboration is a third layer of public diplomacy that should also be examined. Collaboration, defined in this article as initiatives that feature cross-national participation in a joint venture or project with a clearly defined goal, may in certain instances be a more effective public diplomacy technique than either monologue or dialogue. By examining related social science research, this article seeks to start a systematic examination of the circumstances in which each of these three layers of public diplomacy—monologue, dialogue, and collaboration—is most appropriate.
TL;DR: Public diplomacy is used by states, associations of states, and nonstate actors to understand cultures, attitudes, and behavior; build and manage relationships; and influence opinions and actions to advance interests and values.
Abstract: Public diplomacy is a political instrument with analytical boundaries and distinguishing characteristics, but is it an academic field? It is used by states, associations of states, and nonstate actors to understand cultures, attitudes, and behavior; build and manage relationships; and influence opinions and actions to advance interests and values. This article examines scholarship with relevance, usually unintended, to the study of public diplomacy and a body of analytical and policy-related literature derived from the practice of public diplomacy. Ideas, wars, globalism, technologies, political pressures, and professional norms shaped the conduct of public diplomacy and the literature of scholars and practitioners during the hot and cold wars of the twentieth century. In the twenty-first century, thick globalism, network structures, and new technologies are transforming scholarship, governance, and state-based public diplomacy. An achievable consensus on an analytical framework and a substantial scholarl...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors highlight divergent pathways to mobility among members of the new second generation, identify key mechanisms affecting the choices they make in their pursuit of success, and explain how specific choices were pivotal in determining outcomes of segmented assimilation.
Abstract: This article highlights divergent pathways to mobility among members of the new second generation, identifies key mechanisms affecting the choices they make in their pursuit of success, and explains how specific choices were pivotal in determining outcomes of segmented assimilation. First, the authors evaluate definitions of success and pathways to social mobility, advancing a subject-centered approach to study second-generation mobility. Second, the article turns to the results from the authors' ongoing qualitative study of the new second generation in Los Angeles to examine cases that exemplify predictable and anomalous outcomes. Third, the authors zoom in on patterns that emerge from real-life histories to clarify key mechanisms affecting the decisions made by members of the second generation that are consequential in shaping their paths to mobility. The study dispels some enduring myths about group-based cultures, stereotypes, and processes of assimilation. It also advances theoretical debates about i...
TL;DR: A brief review of movement scholars' evolving perspectives on culture can be found in this paper, where the authors focus on movement studies that have contributed to theorizing broader dynamics of cultural innovation and constraint, under what conditions does culture serve not to reproduce the status quo but to challenge it?
Abstract: Thirty years ago, social movement scholars treated culture as just so much noise in structuralist theories of mobilization. Since then, they have become highly attuned to cultural processes, probing how people come to interpret their grievances as political, how culture sets the terms of strategic action, and when movements succeed in changing the rules of the institutional game. The result has been better theories of movements' emergence and impacts but also important insights into culture. In particular, movement analyses have shed light on two questions that have long exercised sociologists of culture. How does culture constrain practical action? Under what conditions does culture serve not to reproduce the status quo but to challenge it? After a brief review of movement scholars' evolving perspectives on culture, the article focuses on movement studies that have contributed to theorizing broader dynamics of cultural innovation and constraint.
TL;DR: The panel member's conclusions about the most promising strategies for reducing the negative effects of television on children's weight status are laid out and recommendations for future research that is needed to fully understand the relationship are made.
Abstract: Overweight and obesity among American children has reached epidemic proportions. More than 9 million youth between the ages of six and nineteen years are considered overweight, and more than 80 percent of overweight adolescents will go on to become obese adults. Research has indicated a wide range of factors believed to contribute to obesity among children, but of growing concern is the potential contribution made by children's media use. In April 2006, an expert panel meeting was convened to meet and address children, television viewing, and weight status. This article reviews the evidence discussed at this meeting about the role that media, specifically television, play in the prevalence of overweight among children. It lays out the panel member's conclusions about the most promising strategies for reducing the negative effects of television on children's weight status and makes recommendations for future research that is needed to fully understand the relationship.
TL;DR: Culture has become a legitimate concern and part of the basic conceptual toolkit in much of contemporary organization theory as mentioned in this paper, and an analytic nexus between culture, power, and agency is emerging in contemporary organizational theory that ultimately may yield a theory of society.
Abstract: Culture has become a legitimate concern and part of the basic conceptual toolkit in much of contemporary organization theory. This article historically traces the contested place of culture in organization theory—from acultural rationalist theorizing at the turn of the twentieth century; to the accidental “discovery” of shop floor culture by human relations scholars in the 1920s; to mid-twentieth-century explorations of informal and institutionalized relations in organizations; to present-day approaches that blend concepts from organizational culture frameworks, neoinstitutional analysis, sociology of culture, and social movement theory. This historical backdrop provides a context for raising several research questions relevant to organizational change, boundaries, and deviance. In closing, the author suggests that an analytic nexus between culture, power, and agency is emerging in contemporary organization theory that ultimately may yield a theory of society.
TL;DR: In a context of widening inequality and governmental persecution of undocumented immigrants, central questions concern the social mobility of new ethnic groups formed as a result of mass migration from Latin America and Asia, especially the growing number of children of immigrants now transitioning to adulthood.
Abstract: In a context of widening inequality and governmental persecution of undocumented immigrants, central questions concern the social mobility of new ethnic groups formed as a result of mass migration from Latin America and Asia—especially the growing number of children of immigrants now transitioning to adulthood. This article presents findings from merged samples of two research studies in Southern California, the Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study (CILS-III) and Immigration and Intergenerational Mobility in Metropolitan Los Angeles (IIMMLA). The focus is on the educational mobility of foreign-parentage (1.5- and second-generation) young adults of Mexican, Salvadoran, Guatemalan, Filipino, Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese, Cambodian, and Laotian origin. The author examines factors that facilitate or derail mobility, including the role of parental human capital and legal/citizenship status, family and neighborhood contexts, early school achievement, acculturation, incarceration, and teenage and nonmarital ...
TL;DR: The U.S. strategy for combating international Islamist terrorists must be based on an understanding of the terrorists' behavior and the process of radicalization to violence as discussed by the authors, which includes a sense of moral outrage, interpreted in a specific way, which resonates with one's personal experiences, and is channeled through group dynamics, both face-to-face and online.
Abstract: The U.S. strategy for combating international Islamist terrorists must be based on an understanding of the terrorists' behavior and the process of radicalization to violence. This process includes four dimensions: a sense of moral outrage, interpreted in a specific way, which resonates with one's personal experiences, and is channeled through group dynamics, both face-to-face and online. The threat has evolved over the past decade. The process of radicalization continues in a hostile physical environment, but it is enabled by the Internet, resulting in a disconnected, decentralized social structure. The threat of this “leaderless jihad” is self-limiting because of its confining structure and the lack of appeal of its utopian ideal. It will probably fade away for internal reasons, if not sustained by overly aggressive tactics construed as a “war on Islam.” The appropriate strategy against this threat is to contain and neutralize the radicalization process along its four dimensions.
TL;DR: This study shows that class-related resources, such as education, self-definition, and remembrance of nation and ancestry play an important function, shaping youthful expectations and behaviors, and protecting the children of low-income immigrants from downward mobility.
Abstract: This article moves beyond current understandings of family- and school-related dynamics used to explain the educational and occupational success of low-income immigrant children to investigate the role of cultural capital acquired in the country of origin. Class-related forms of knowledge obtained prior to migration can become invaluable assets in areas of destination through the realization of what Pierre Boutdieu calls habitus, that is, a series of embodied dispositions deployed by individuals in their pursuit of set objectives. Although the concept has attracted prolonged attention, the mechanisms by which the habitus is fulfilled remain unspecified. Here, the author proposes and examines three of those mechanisms: (1) cognitive correspondence, (2) positive emulation, and (3) active recollection. This study shows that class-related resources, such as education, self-definition, and remembrance of nation and ancestry play an important function, shaping youthful expectations and behaviors, and protecting...
TL;DR: This article reviews many of the use of geospatial technologies, accelerometers, electronic food and travel diaries, and video games to promote physical activity and healthy eating and explores some of the other possibilities for harnessing the potential of technology to combat the childhood overweight epidemic.
Abstract: The changing nature of how children engage with their physical environment is one factor in the dramatic increase in childhood overweight. Children today are engaging much less with the world outside their homes in terms of physical activity and much more in terms of eating. Technological innovations in media have contributed to these changes, keeping children inside and sedentary during more of their playtime and exposing them to highly coordinated advertising campaigns. But researchers are increasingly looking to technology for solutions to understand how children interact with their built environments and to make changes that promote healthy living. This article reviews many of these innovations, including the use of geospatial technologies, accelerometers, electronic food and travel diaries, and video games to promote physical activity and healthy eating. It also explores some of the other possibilities for harnessing the potential of technology to combat the childhood overweight epidemic.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that parents can no longer keep pace either with innovations in advertising or increased spending, suggesting the need for more stringent government regulations on food marketing to children.
Abstract: Budgets for marketing to children have spiked well into the billions, an escalation that mirrors the rise in childhood obesity rates. Children are targets for a maelstrom of marketing for all sorts of products enabled by sophisticated technology and minimal government regulation. Despite the fact that recent studies document links between food advertising and childhood obesity, a significant proportion of marketing that targets children is for energy-dense, low-nutrient food. Moreover, advances in digital technology allow marketers to find more direct, personalized gateways to reach young audiences that sidestep parental authority and bank as much on the unknowing parent as the gullible child. Cataloguing the depth and breadth of child-centered food marketing while discussing grassroots strategies for instituting change, the authors argue that parents can no longer keep pace either with innovations in advertising or increased spending, suggesting the need for more stringent government regulations on food ...
TL;DR: Survey of national experts in health/nutrition and health policy on the public health impact and the political feasibility of fifty-one federal policy options for addressing childhood obesity found policies that were viewed as politically infeasible but having a great impact on childhood obesity emphasized outright bans on certain activities.
Abstract: Research on childhood obesity has primarily been conducted by experts in nutrition, psychology, and medicine. Only recently have public policy scholars devoted serious work to this burgeoning public health crisis. Here the authors advance that research by surveying national experts in health/nutrition and health policy on the public health impact and the political feasibility of fifty-one federal policy options for addressing childhood obesity. Policies that were viewed as politically infeasible but having a great impact on childhood obesity emphasized outright bans on certain activities. In contrast, education and information dissemination policies were viewed as having the potential to receive a favorable hearing from national policy makers but little potential public health impact. Both nutrition and policy experts believed that increasing funding for research would be beneficial and politically feasible. A central need for the field is to develop the means to make high-impact policies more politically...
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TL;DR: The authors compare and contrast the public discourse over memory in Western Europe and North America and conclude that the greater awareness in continental Europe of memory as a political resource and site of contestation has profound implications for elite behavior and mass responses.
Abstract: The author compares and contrasts the public discourse over memory in Western Europe and North America. The greater awareness in continental Europe of memory as a political resource and site of contestation has profound implications for elite behavior and mass responses. It also has the potential to alter the dynamics by which collective and institutional memory is created, recalled, and altered.
TL;DR: Community-based programs and whether they are successfully slowing the rate of childhood obesity are reviewed, including demonstrations of recipe preparation, community gardens, and school-based curricula, with suggestions for intervention efforts and funding priorities focusing on high-risk populations of low-income overweight women of childbearing years.
Abstract: One out of every three children is overweight. Obesity is linked to increased risks of diseases such as type 2 diabetes, liver disease, hypertension, and heart disease. As the numbers of children with chronic disease goes up, so will the strain on the U.S. health care system, including the cost of health care. The Ecological Model of Childhood Overweight allows one to consider how an individual child's weight is influenced by characteristics ranging from the individual to the society. This article focuses on community characteristics that interact with children's weight status. It reviews community-based programs and whether they are successfully slowing the rate of childhood obesity, including demonstrations of recipe preparation, community gardens, and school-based curricula. It concludes with suggestions for intervention efforts and funding priorities focusing on high-risk populations of low-income overweight women of childbearing years. Interventions that occur during preconception may be true primary...
TL;DR: This paper found that ethnic communities are generally supportive of the second generation's school performance, while contact with oppositional cultures of domestic minorities is the main cause of lower than average achievement, and support a conditional view of ethnic communities: the extent to which immigrant families' insertion into ethnic communities can support the school performance of their children dep...
Abstract: This article examines the theory of segmented assimilation, which traces the divergent adaptation of immigrant children in the post-1969 wave to the nature of reception by U.S. society, access to social capital through ethnic communities, and exposure to oppositional cultures of marginalized domestic minorities. The article provides a test of those arguments in the area of school performance. Based on data from the Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study, indicators of community-based social capital are shown to account for considerable interethnic differences in school performance. The results challenge notions that ethnic communities are generally supportive of the second generation's school performance, while contact with oppositional cultures of domestic minorities is the main cause of lower than average achievement. They support a conditional view of ethnic communities: the extent to which immigrant families' insertion into ethnic communities can support the school performance of their children dep...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors describe how new work in arts sociology unearths and develops our understanding of aesthetic consciousness, the tacit and often embodied bases of action, cognition, and engagement with cultural forms.
Abstract: Through its embrace of the “cultural turn” and the “practice turn” in cultural sociology, recent work in the subfield of arts sociology has helped to advance our understanding of the role of culture in social life through its focus on arts-in-action. Empirically, this focus grew out of earlier work in the production and consumption of the arts, while, theoretically, it resonates with traditions within ethnomethodology, cognitive sociology, and the sociology of science and technology. The authors describe how new work in arts sociology unearths and develops our understanding of aesthetic consciousness, the tacit and often embodied bases of action, cognition, and engagement with cultural forms. This recent emphasis on materials and actions in turn permits critique of rule-based and more overtly cognitive models of agency structure. It also leads some of its proponents into areas that would not normally be viewed as topics for the field.
TL;DR: Findings show Asian immigrants have better educational outcomes than whites, which is accounted for by their immigrant characteristics, and Mexican and Puerto Rican immigrants have lower educational outcomesthan whites, most of which is explained by socioeconomic background.
Abstract: This study employs nationally representative data to determine how immigrants from the largest immigrant groups within the United States (i.e., Asians and Latinos) compare to whites on a wide range of educational outcomes. The authors also examine the extent to which socioeconomic background and immigrant characteristics explain racial/ethnic difference in academic outcomes. In addition, this study includes analyses that omit whites and compare immigrants to their nonimmigrant counterparts. Previous studies typically use whites as a basis for comparison, which the authors argue may not be appropriate for isolating the immigrant effect on scholastic outcomes. Findings show Asian immigrants have better educational outcomes than whites, which is accounted for by their immigrant characteristics. In contrast, Mexican and Puerto Rican immigrants have lower educational outcomes than whites, most of which is explained by socioeconomic background. Furthermore, findings illustrate the importance of employing the pr...
TL;DR: Theory of public diplomacy Moving from Monologue to Dialogue to Collaboration: The Three Layers of Public Diplomacy - Geoffrey Cowan and Amelia Arsenault as mentioned in this paper The Tools of public Diplomacy Place Branding: The State of the Art - Peter van Ham New Technologies and International Broadcasting: Reflections on Adaptations and Transformations - Monroe E. Price, Susan Haas and Drew Margolin Mapping the Undefinable: Some Thoughts on Relevance of Exchange Programs within International Relations Theory.
Abstract: Theorizing Public Diplomacy Moving from Monologue to Dialogue to Collaboration: The Three Layers of Public Diplomacy - Geoffrey Cowan and Amelia Arsenault Public Diplomacy: Taxonomies and Histories - Nicholas J. Cull Searching for a Theory of Public Diplomacy - Eytan Gilboa The New Public Sphere: Global Civil Society, Communication Networks, and Global Governance - Manuel Castells Public Diplomacy and Soft Power - Joseph S. Nye, Jr. Hard Power, Soft Power, Smart Power - Ernest J Wilson III The Tools of Public Diplomacy Place Branding: The State of the Art - Peter van Ham New Technologies and International Broadcasting: Reflections on Adaptations and Transformations - Monroe E. Price, Susan Haas and Drew Margolin Mapping the Undefinable: Some Thoughts on Relevance of Exchange Programs within International Relations Theory - Giles Scott-Smith National Case Studies of Public Diplomacy and Commentary International Exchanges and the U.S. Image - Nancy Snow Buena Vista Solidarity and the Axis of Aid: Cuban and Venezuelan Public Diplomacy - Michael J. Bustamante and Julia E. Sweig Public Diplomacy and the Rise of Chinese Soft Power - Yiwei Wang Public Diplomacy: Sunrise of an Academic Field - Bruce Gregory
TL;DR: For example, the authors found that exposure to food commercials increased children's preferences for the advertised products, while age did not moderate this effect; younger and older children were equally persuaded by the commercials.
Abstract: A large body of research suggests that food marketing affects children's food preferences, short- and long-term dietary consumption, and purchase requests directed to parents. It is frequently argued that younger children are more susceptible to marketers' messages than older children because they do not understand the persuasive nature of advertising; however, little direct evidence supports this claim. Employing an experimental design, this study examined the influence of food marketing on children's preferences and tested whether age (and gender) moderated the effects of ad exposure. The sample consisted of 133 children between the ages of five and eleven. Results indicated that exposure to food commercials increased children's preferences for the advertised products. Age did not moderate this effect; younger and older children were equally persuaded by the commercials. Boys were more influenced by the commercials than girls. Implications for the study of food marketing to children are discussed.
TL;DR: In this article, the pros and cons of different project designs, focusing on the sometimes contradictory aims projects are expected to achieve and on the interplay between the various agencies, are examined.
Abstract: International school textbook revision and research became a professional academic activity after the First World War. It broadened its scope and methodological approaches considerably after the collapse of the bipolar world. Today, a number of different agencies, such as international governmental institutions, NGOs, and academic as well as pedagogical institutions, are involved in projects on the revision of history teaching in postconflict societies. This article examines the pros and cons of different project designs, focusing on the sometimes contradictory aims projects are expected to achieve and on the interplay between the various agencies. Examples highlighting the reconstruction and reconciliation process are taken from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Israel-Palestine, and Rwanda and South Africa.