Showing papers in "Annual Review of Energy and The Environment in 2001"
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors reviewed the total CO2 emissions from cement making, including process and energy-related emissions, and discussed CO2 emission mitigation options for the cement industry.
Abstract: ▪ Abstract The cement industry contributes about 5% to global anthropogenic CO2 emissions, making the cement industry an important sector for CO2-emission mitigation strategies. CO2 is emitted from the calcination process of limestone, from combustion of fuels in the kiln, as well as from power generation. In this paper, we review the total CO2 emissions from cement making, including process and energy-related emissions. Currently, most available data only includes the process emissions. We also discuss CO2 emission mitigation options for the cement industry. Estimated total carbon emissions from cement production in 1994 were 307 million metric tons of carbon (MtC), 160 MtC from process carbon emissions, and 147 MtC from energy use. Overall, the top 10 cement-producing countries in 1994 accounted for 63% of global carbon emissions from cement production. The average intensity of carbon dioxide emissions from total global cement production is 222 kg of C/t of cement. Emission mitigation options include en...
1,181 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the difficulties in scientifically determining the reduction in yield that results from the exposure of agricultural crops to surface ozone and then transforming that knowledge into efficient and effective regulatory standards.
Abstract: ▪ Abstract Ozone (O3) is well documented as the air pollutant most damaging to agricultural crops and other plants. Most crops in developed countries are grown in summer when O3 concentrations are elevated and frequently are sufficiently high to reduce yields. This article examines the difficulties in scientifically determining the reduction in yield that results from the exposure of agricultural crops to surface O3 and then transforming that knowledge into efficient and effective regulatory standards. The different approaches taken by the United States and Europe in addressing this issue as well as the few studies that have been conducted to date in developing countries are examined and summarized. Extensive research was conducted in the United States during the 1980s but has not been continued. During the 1990s, the European community forged ahead with scientific research and innovative proposals for air-quality standards. These efforts included the development of a “critical level” (CL) for O3 based on...
295 citations
TL;DR: In many developing countries, and in particular those in Asia, the Middle East, and Africa, reform of the power sector starts from a market structure that is dominated by a state-owned national power utility with a legally endowed monopoly and a vertically integrated supply chain encompassing power generation, transmission, distribution, and customer services.
Abstract: In many developing countries, and in particular those in Asia, the Middle East, and Africa, reform of the power sector starts from a market structure that is dominated by a state-owned national power utility with a legally endowed monopoly and a vertically integrated supply chain encompassing power generation, transmission, distribution, and customer services. The rationale for this structure is minimization of the costs of coordination between these functions and of financing the development of power systems. The pre-reform structure in other countries, notably in South America, places distribution and customer services with local companies, separate from national companies that provide power generation and transmission. Power reforms are designed to introduce competition where feasible, which is in the upstream production and downstream supply functions of the industry structure, and to use economic regulation of the wholesale and retail power markets to promote competition and protect consumer interests. Regulation of the power market is essential, as shown by the experience of New Zealand, which tried an approach without the amount of regulation used elsewhere. Their approach was based on mandatory separation of generation, transmission, and distribution, using general competition laws to deal with both the terms of interconnection and conduct generally in unbundled power networks.
293 citations
139 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a large-scale commercial underground CO2 sequestration has begun at the Sleipner West gas field in the North Sea, and the major issues to be addressed if this technology is to make an impact on CO2 emissions to the atmosphere are cost of CO2 capture, safety and security of storage, and public acceptability.
Abstract: ▪ Abstract Underground storage in porous and permeable reservoir rocks is a technically feasible way to dispose of industrial quantities of carbon dioxide such as are produced by a fossil fuel–fired power plant. All the necessary steps are commercially proven and in use today. Extensive, naturally occurring CO2 accumulations indicate that under favorable conditions CO2 can be retained in underground reservoirs for millions of years. Large-scale commercial underground CO2 sequestration has begun at the Sleipner West gas field in the North Sea. Some of the major issues to be addressed if this technology is to make an impact on CO2 emissions to the atmosphere are cost of CO2 capture, safety and security of storage, and public acceptability.
137 citations
TL;DR: A review of energy indicators, which are developed to describe the links between energy use and human activity in a disaggregated manner, can be found in this article, where the authors discuss the basic concepts of various indicators and the methodologies used to derive them.
Abstract: ▪ Abstract This article reviews energy indicators, which are developed to describe the links between energy use and human activity in a disaggregated manner After briefly reviewing a number of early and current efforts to develop indicators, we discuss the basic concepts of various indicators and the methodologies used to derive them We also review the use of decomposition methods to aid in the analysis of trends in energy use and comparisons of uses between countries Findings from our comparative and time-series analyses of several industrialized countries illustrate the application of these methods Using simplified methods for estimating the carbon released in direct combustion of fossil fuels, and in electricity and heat production, energy indicators can be extended to carbon emissions These carbon indicators can play an important role in aiding negotiations over carbon reduction targets and evaluating progress toward meeting abatement goals
117 citations
TL;DR: In the past 20 years, a new scientific discipline based on direct measurement of human exposure to environmental pollutants has developed as mentioned in this paper, which has required developing small, lightweight, quiet personal monitors for volatile organic compounds and other pollutants.
Abstract: ▪ Abstract Over the past 20 years, a new scientific discipline based on direct measurement of human exposure to environmental pollutants has developed. The fundamental principle of the new science is to “measure where the people are.” This has required developing small, lightweight, quiet personal monitors for volatile organic compounds and other pollutants. A second principle has been to measure body burden, particularly exhaled breath, whenever possible to determine the relationship between exposure and dose. Studies employing the new monitors and breath measurements have overturned accepted ideas about the sources of most volatile organic pollutants. The main sources turn out surprisingly often to be small, close to the person, and completely unregulated. These findings should result in major changes in our approach to environmental regulation; however, powerful forces of resistance would need to be overcome.
109 citations
TL;DR: The authors reviewed existing studies of fossil fuel subsidies within the United States, as well as assessments of the potential impact of subsidy reform on GHG emissions, highlighting the most important disparities in subsidy definition and valuation.
Abstract: ▪ Abstract Growing international pressure to curb greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions has focused attention on existing policies that may, either by design or by effect, subsidize fossil fuel production and consumption. This paper reviews existing studies of fossil fuel subsidies within the United States, as well as assessments of the potential impact of subsidy reform on GHG emissions. Evaluating the differences across the studies, it highlights the most important disparities in subsidy definition and valuation in order to clarify the conclusions that can be drawn from this body of work. We then present some of the tools used to provide transparency in environmental regulation. We conclude that many of these approaches can be used to improve the transparency of fiscal policy, with important benefits within the context of climate change and beyond.
80 citations
TL;DR: Wang et al. as discussed by the authors focused on three major themes: issues exerting an upward pressure on residential energy use, policy for promoting energy conservation, and technical opportunities to decrease energy use and increase comfort.
Abstract: ▪ Abstract Energy conservation in Chinese residential buildings merits attention in part due to China's large population, increased standard of living, and high volume of construction. This paper focuses on three major themes: issues exerting an upward pressure on residential energy use, policy for promoting energy conservation, and technical opportunities to decrease energy use and increase comfort. An increase in total floor area, increasing electric appliance ownership, and an increase in demand for heating and cooling characterize the residential sector. Space heating remains the dominant energy end-use. Relatively new buildings in cold regions of China, while a marked improvement over earlier construction, still suffer from inadequate insulation, leaky windows, and lack of attention to construction quality. Energy-conservation standards have addressed these issues in part, but further effort is needed to ensure code compliance. A survey of prospective homeowners shows that energy-efficient housing wo...
31 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors consider the different options for dealing with this hazardous material in the interim, before a permanent high-level nuclear waste repository is opened, and examine the safety, security, transportation, economic, political, and other issues that bear on the choice of option.
Abstract: ▪ Abstract At nuclear power reactors around the United States, quantities of spent or irradiated nuclear fuel are growing while owner-operator companies await the approval of a permanent storage facility. Some reactors have run out of space in their cooling pools and have had to resort to dry cask storage. The first half of this paper looks at the policy history of interim storage in the United States, discusses the current storage status at individual reactors, and then reviews the technologies available to deal with it. The second half of the paper considers the different options for dealing with this hazardous material in the interim, before a permanent high-level nuclear waste repository is opened, and examines the safety, security, transportation, economic, political, and other issues that bear on the choice of option.
25 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the central question of scientific work has been, what is and ought to be the human use of the earth? It has been pursued collectively, with mentor, colleagues, students, and friends as a set of research questions related to hazards, hunger, and sustainable development.
Abstract: ▪ Abstract The central question of my scientific work has been, what is and ought to be the human use of the earth? It has been pursued collectively, with mentor, colleagues, students, and friends as a set of research questions related to hazards, hunger, and sustainable development. Regarding hazard, I tried to understand why people persist in occupying areas subject to natural and technological hazards and how adaptation made this possible. An extended stay in Africa to research both environment and development led to new queries. Why does hunger persist amid a world of plenty, and what can be done to end it? Can there be a transition to sustainability that over the next two generations would meet human needs and reduce hunger and poverty while maintaining the essential life support systems of the planet? All three themes and the research methods used to pursue them come together in an emerging sustainability science.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors report that during the period 1995-1999, the President's Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) produced three major energy studies, at President Clinton's request, which helped lay the foundation for several major energy initiatives of the second Clinton term.
Abstract: ▪ Abstract During the period 1995–1999, the President's Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) produced three major energy studies, at President Clinton's request. The panels that conducted these studies were broadly constituted from the academic, industrial, and NGO (nongovernmental organization) sectors, and their recommendations were unanimous. These efforts (a) helped lay the foundation for several major energy initiatives of the second Clinton term, including the Climate Change Technology Initiative, the Nuclear Energy Research Initiative, and the International Clean Energy Initiative; (b) helped launch energy RD and (c) strengthened related activities, such as the Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles, the Partnership for Advancing Technologies in Housing, the fossil power Vision-21 Program, and the National Bioenergy Initiative. Federal budgets for research, development, demonstration, and deploy...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors reflect on a career that has featured developing an advanced torpedo for submarine warfare during World War II, designing alternative nuclear reactors at the advent of nuclear power, guiding the development of the first institutions for technology assessment, assisting several of the early efforts at environmental policy analysis, and promoting experiments that have led to insights regarding the humanization of work.
Abstract: ▪ Abstract I reflect on a career that has featured developing an advanced torpedo for submarine warfare during World War II, designing alternative nuclear reactors at the advent of nuclear power, guiding the development of the first institutions for technology assessment, assisting several of the early efforts at environmental policy analysis, and promoting experiments that have led to insights regarding the humanization of work. A recurring concern of mine, still unresolved, is how to give due weight, simultaneously, to two different visions of the scientific enterprise: an endeavor that must remain autonomous and an endeavor that must be driven by societal needs.