Showing papers in "Annual Review of Psychology in 1997"

Attitudes and attitude change

Abstract: ▪ Abstract We review empirical and conceptual developments over the past four years (1992–1995) on attitudes and persuasion. A voluminous amount of material was produced concerning attitude structure, attitude change, and the consequences of holding attitudes. In the structure area, particular attention is paid to work on attitude accessiblity, ambivalence, and the affective versus cognitive bases of attitudes. In persuasion, our review examines research that has focused on high effort cognitive processes (central route), low effort processes (peripheral route), and the multiple roles by which variables can have an impact on attitudes. Special emphasis is given to work on cognitive dissonance and other biases in message processing, and on the multiple processes by which mood influences evaluations. Work on the consequences of attitudes focuses on the impact of attitudes on behavior and social judgments.

The effects of stressful life events on depression.

Abstract: ▪ Abstract This chapter reviews recent research on the relationship between stressful life experiences and depression. A distinction is made between aggregate studies of overall stress effects and focused studies of particular events and difficulties. A distinction is also made between effects of life stress on first onset of depression and on the subsequent course of depression. Although the available evidence suggests that acute stressful life events can lead to the recurrence of episodes of major depression, a series of methodological problems compromise our ability to make clear causal inferences about the effects of life events on first onset of major depression or about the effects of chronic stress on either onset or recurrence of depression. The main problems of this sort are discussed, and recommendations made for ways of addressing these problems in future studies.

Families as systems

Abstract: In this chapter, we discuss theoretical and conceptual models that use an organismic or systems metaphor for understanding families. We suggest that such theories are important for stimulating new research and organizing existing data, and that advances in these theories over the past few decades have expanded the potential for understanding child development, as well as adult adaptation and the development of close relationships. These paradigms follow from models that view development as resulting from the transactional regulatory processes of dynamic systems. Such models are helpful for considering multiple influences on development and adaptation and have implications for the design of effective interventions. We focus on the specifics of systems theories as applied to families, and the research generated by or consistent with these views. Our review is not exhaustive; rather, we intend to give a sense of the direction of this work and its importance for the understanding of development and adaptation.

Central cholinergic systems and cognition

Abstract: The organization and possible functions of basal forebrain and pontine cholinergic systems are reviewed. Whereas the basal forebrain cholinergic neuronal projections likely subserve a common electrophysiological function, e.g. to boost signal-to-noise ratios in cortical target areas, this function has different effects on psychological processes dependent upon the neural network operations within these various cortical domains. Evidence is presented that (a) the nucleus basalis-neocortical cholinergic system contributes greatly to visual attentional function, but not to mnemonic processes per se; (b) the septohippocampal projection is involved in the modulation of short-term spatial (working) memory processes, perhaps by prolonging the neural representation of external stimuli within the hippocampus; and (c) the diagonal band-cingulate cortex cholinergic projection impacts on the ability to utilize response rules through conditional discrimination. We also suggest that nucleus basalis-amygdala cholinergic projections have a role in the retention of affective conditioning while brainstem cholinergic projections to the thalamus and midbrain dopamine neurons affect basic arousal processes (e.g. sleep-wake cycle) and behavioral activation, respectively. The possibilities and limitations of therapeutic interventions with procholinergic drugs in patients with Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative disorders in which basal forebrain cholinergic neurons degenerate are also discussed.

Key issues in the development of aggression and violence from childhood to early adulthood

Abstract: Different manifestations of aggression from childhood to early adulthood are reviewed to establish how early manifestations are related to later manifestations. Similarities and differences in manifestations of aggression between the two genders are noted. Developmental sequences and pathways from minor aggression to violence are highlighted. Long-term escalation is contrasted with short-term escalation at older ages. Although studies have emphasized high stability of aggression over time, data show that a substantial proportion of aggressive youth desist over time. Temperamental, emotional, and cognitive aspects of aggression are reviewed, either as precursors or co-occurring conditions to aggression. Selected processes in the realms of the family, peers, and neighborhoods are highlighted that are known to be associated with juvenile aggression. Cumulative, long-term causes are contrasted with short-term causes, and causes associated with desistance in aggression are reviewed.

VISUAL ATTENTION: Control, Representation, and Time Course

Abstract: Three central problems in the recent literature on visual attention are reviewed. The first concerns the control of attention by top-down (or goal-directed) and bottom-up (or stimulus-driven) processes. The second concerns the representational basis for visual selection, including how much attention can be said to be location- or object-based. Finally, we consider the time course of attention as it is directed to one stimulus after another.

Health psychology: What is an unhealthy environment and how does it get under the skin?

Abstract: ▪ Abstract This review explores the role of environments in creating chronic and acute health disorders. A general framework for studying the nesting of social environments and the multiple pathways by which environmental factors may adversely affect health is offered. Treating socioeconomic status (SES) and race as contextual factors, we examine characteristics of the environments of community, work, family, and peer interaction for predictors of positive and adverse health outcomes across the lifespan. We consider chronic stress/allostatic load, mental distress, coping skills and resources, and health habits and behaviors as classes of mechanisms that address how unhealthy environments get “under the skin,” to create health disorders. Across multiple environments, unhealthy environments are those that threaten safety, that undermine the creation of social ties, and that are conflictual, abusive, or violent. A healthy environment, in contrast, provides safety, opportunities for social integration, and th...

PSYCHOSOCIAL TREATMENTS FOR POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER: A Critical Review

Abstract: Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been the subject of growing recognition since its inception in 1980. Owing in part to the relatively recent inclusion of PTSD in the psychiatric nomenclature, research is only beginning to address its treatment in methodologically rigorous studies. In this review, we discuss issues such as prevalence of trauma and of PTSD, and gold standards for treatment outcome research. We then critically review the extant literature on the treatment of PTSD. Finally, we include a discussion of issues specific to various trauma populations and factors that may influence treatment efficacy across types of trauma.

The use of animal models to study the effects of aging on cognition

Abstract: This review addresses the importance of animal models for understanding the effects of normal aging on the brain and cognitive functions. First, studies of laboratory animals can help to distinguish between healthy aging and pathological conditions that may contribute to cognitive decline late in life. Second, research on individual differences in aging, a theme of interest in studies of elderly human beings, can be advanced by the experimental control afforded in the use of animal models. The review offers a neuropsychological framework to compare the effects of aging in human beings, monkeys, and rodents. We consider aging in relation to the role of the medial temporal lobe in memory, the information processing functions of the prefrontal cortex in the strategic use of memory, and the regulation of attention by distributed neural circuitry. We also provide an overview of the neurobiological effects of aging that may account for alterations in psychological functions.

Gender, racial, ethnic, sexual, and class identities

Abstract: ▪ Abstract Identity is the individual's psychological relationship to particular social category systems This chapter summarizes how people create and negotiate their gender, racial, ethnic, sexual, and class identities Theories, methods, and priorities in each of these content areas differ However, each systematically excludes particular research participants and thus ignores the complexity of people's multiple social identities Research suggests that gender, racial, ethnic, sexual, and class identities are fluid, multidimensional, personalized social constructions that reflect the individual's current context and sociohistorical cohort However, far too little empirical work captures the richly textured, theoretical conceptions of identity development, maintenance, and change Innovative methods for assessing the content and structure of people's identities now exist Future research should include groups other than young children or college students; should explore functions of identity other than

Organizational behavior in the new organizational era.

Abstract: ▪ Abstract Changes in contemporary firms and their competitive environments translate into a new focus in organizational research. This chapter reviews organizational behavior research reflecting the shift from corporatist organizations to organizing. Key research themes include emerging employment relations, managing the performance paradox, goal setting and self-management, discontinuous information processing, organization learning, organizational change and individual transitions, and the implications of change for work-nonwork relations. Research into organizing is building upon and extending many of the field's traditional concepts. This chapter suggests that some assumptions of organizational behavior research are being superseded by those more responsive to the new organizational era.

DECLARATIVE MEMORY: Insights from Cognitive Neurobiology

Abstract: ▪ Abstract The discovery of declarative memory as distinct from other forms of memory is a major recent acheivement in cognitive science. Basic issues about the nature of declarative memory are considered in this review from the perspective of studies on its underlying brain mechanisms. These studies have shown that declarative memory is mediated by a specific brain system including areas of the cerebral cortex and hippocampal region that make distinct functional contributions to memory processing. These processing mechanisms mediate the organization of memories in ways that can support the special properties of declarative or explicit memory expression. Furthermore, the basic properties of declarative memory in human beings can be viewed as evolving from a capacity for organized memory representation and flexible memory expression in animals.

Human-computer interaction: psychology as a science of design.

Abstract: Human-computer interaction (HCI) study is the region of intersection between psychology and the social sciences, on the one hand, and computer science and technology, on the other. HCI researchers analyze and design specific user interface technologies (e.g. pointing devices). They study and improve the processes of technology development (e.g. task analysis, design rationale). They develop and evaluate new applications of technology (e.g. word processors, digital libraries). Throughout the past two decades, HCI has progressively integrated its scientific concerns with the engineering goal of improving the usability of computer systems and applications, which has resulted in a body of technical knowledge and methodology. HCI continues to provide a challenging test domain for applying and developing psychological and social theory in the context of technology development and use.

What's elementary about associative learning?

Abstract: The scientific study of associative learning began nearly 100 years ago with the pioneering studies of Thorndike and Pavlov, and it continues today as an active area of research and theory. Associative learning should be the foundation for our understanding of other forms of behavior and cognition in human and nonhuman animals. The laws of associative learning are complex, and many modern theorists posit the involvement of attention, memory, and information processing in such basic conditioning phenomena as overshadowing and blocking, and the effects of stimulus preexposure on later conditioning. An unresolved problem for learning theory is distinguishing the formation of associations from their behavioral expression. This and other problems will occupy future generations of behavioral scientists interested in the experimental investigation of associative learning. Neuroscientists and cognitive scientists will both contribute to and benefit from that effort in the next 100 years of inquiry.

WOMEN AND CAREER DEVELOPMENT: A Decade of Research

Abstract: ▪ Abstract This chapter reviews the vocational experiences of women as they have been revealed in the literature during the past decade The review considers primarily empirical literature; findings are sampled relative to women's self-concept development, readiness for vocational choices, actual choices made, work-force entry, experiences at work, and retirement Suggestions are made regarding the next generation of research on women and career development

Creative hypothesis generating in psychology : Some useful heuristics

Abstract: To correct a common imbalance in methodology courses, focusing almost entirely on hypothesis-testing issues to the neglect of hypothesis-generating issues which are at least as important, 49 creative heuristics are described, divided into 5 categories and 14 subcategories. Each of these heuristics has often been used to generate hypotheses in psychological research, and each is teachable to students. The 49 heuristics range from common sense perceptiveness of the oddity of natural occurrences to use of sophisticated quantitative data analyses in ways that provoke new insights.

Neurobiological constraints on behavioral models of motivation

Abstract: The application of neurobiological tools to behavioral questions has produced a number of working models of the mechanisms mediating the rewarding and aversive properties of stimuli. The authors review and compare three models that differ in the nature and number of the processes identified. The dopamine hypothesis, a single system model, posits that the neurotransmitter dopamine plays a fundamental role in mediating the rewarding properties of all classes of stimuli. In contrast, both nondeprived/deprived and saliency attribution models claim that separate systems make independent contributions to reward. The former identifies the psychological boundary defined by the two systems as being between states of nondeprivation (e.g. food sated) and deprivation (e.g. hunger). The latter identifies a boundary between liking and wanting systems. Neurobiological dissociations provide tests of and explanatory power for behavioral theories of goal-directed behavior.

Psychobiological models of hippocampal function in learning and memory

Abstract: We review current computational models of hippocampal function in learning and memory, concentrating on those that make strongest contact with psychological issues and behavioral data. Some models build upon Marr's early theories for modeling hippocampal field CA3's putative role in the fast, temporary storage of episodic memories. Other models focus on hippocampal involvement in incrementally learned associations, such as classical conditioning. More recent efforts have attempted to bring functional interpretations of the hippocampal region in closer contact with underlying anatomy and physiology. In reviewing these psychobiological models, three major themes emerge. First, computational models provide the conceptual glue to bind together data from multiple levels of analysis. Second, models serve as important tools to integrate data from both animal and human studies. Third, previous psychological models that capture important behavioral principles of memory provide an important top-down constraint for developing computational models of the neural bases of these behaviors.

The matching of two sets of factors by decomposition of variance approach

Abstract: The usual approach, proposed by several authors in matching of two factor solutions obtained on two different samples measured by the same set of variables is the determination of the matrix where and are either matrices of correlations between variables and orthogonal or oblique factors or parallel projections on oblique factors, as reported by Fruchter (1966). When the comparison of oblique factor solutions takes place, the difference in values obtained by two definitions of A matrices can be substantial, so it is recommended to calculate the congruences of both pairs, the structure and pattern matrices. In this paper, a new approach is proposed where a single sintetic measure represents the matching of both pairs of A matrices. The matching measure is defined as cosine of the angle between vectors of proportions of variance explained by the factors.

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: The Acquisition of Linguistic Structure in Normal and Special Populations

Abstract: This review examines how language learners master the formal structure of their language. Three possible routes to the acquisition and mastery of linguistic structure are investigated: (a) the use of prosodic and phonological information, which is imperfectly correlated with syntactic units and linguistic classes; (b) the use of function words to syntactically classify co-occurring words and phrases, and the effect of location of function-word processing on structural mastery; and (c) the use of morphology internal to lexical items to determine language structure, and the productive recombination of these subunits in new items. Evidence supporting these three routes comes from normal language acquirers and from several special populations, including learners given impoverished input, learners with Williams syndrome, specific language-impaired learners, learners with Down syndrome, and late learners of first and second languages. Further evidence for the three routes comes from artificial language acquisition experiments and computer simulations.

Effects of PTSD label and presented symptom pattern on evaluation of target s responsibility and personality

Abstract: This study aimed to examine whether impression about a person with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) could be altered by manipulating with the recognizability of presented symptom pattern and the label for it. Three vignettes describing a male person with complete symptom profile of PTSD and its recognizable and unrecognizable parts were presented to 228 students and about a half of them was told the target is in fact a PTSD casualty. Students rated the target for responsibility for causing actual condition and a number of personality traits. The label manipulation produced significant effect only on the perception of target� s introversion. The effect of the symptom pattern variable was more pervasive, and obtained patterns of differences between conditions suggest that the tendency of positive evaluation, as well as the perception of causal uncontrollability are due to the presence of recognizable symptoms and not necessarily to the absence of unrecognizable symptoms, while the very presence of unrecognizable symptoms might provide a basis to see a person as a 'disordered personality'.