Showing papers in "Apidologie in 2004"

Harmonized methods of melissopalynology

Abstract: Pollen analysis of honey, or melissopalynol-ogy, is of great importance for quality control.Honey always includes numerous pollen grains(mainly from the plant species foraged by honeybees) and honeydew elem ents (like wax tubes,algae and fungal spores) that altogether providea good fingerprint of th e environment where thehoney comes from. Pollen analysis can thereforebe useful to determine and control the geograph-ical and botanical origin of honeys even if sen-sory and physico-chemical analyses are alsoneeded for a correct dia gnosis of botanical ori-gin. Moreover, pollen analysis provides someimportant information about honey extractionand filtration, fermentation (Russmann, 1998),some kinds of adulteration (Kerkvliet et al

Physico-chemical methods for the characterisation of unifloral honeys: a review

Abstract: The objective of this work is to review all known physico-chemical methods used for the determination of the botanical origin of honey. In earlier works special attention is ascribed to the classification power of different classification methods (Persano Oddo et al., 1995b, 2000; Anklam, 1998; Molan, 1998; Bogdanov and Martin, 2002). This review gives a critical evaluation of all physico-chemical methods, which have been used up to the present time for the classification of unifloral honeys. The review is divided into two parts. The first one provides a general survey of classical physico chemical methods. These methods are mostly validated and widely used in the routine control of honey. In the second part the utility of new methods for authentication of botanical origin is discussed. In most cases, these methods are not yet harmonised and validated for routine use. The principle of each new method is briefly discussed, without going into details, which can be found in the cited references.

Main European unifloral honeys: descriptive sheets

Abstract: Livia PERSANO ODDOa*, Roberto PIROb with the collaboration of: Etienne BRUNEAU, Christine GUYOT-DECLERCK (Belgium); Tzeko IVANOV (Bulgaria); Ji ina PISKULOVA (Czech Republic); Christian FLAMINI, Joel LHERITIER, Monique MORLOT (France); Harald RUSSMANN, Werner VON DER OHE, Katharine Von der OHE (Germany); Panagiota GOTSIOU, Sophia KARABOURNIOTI, Panagiotis KEFALAS, Maria PASSALOGLOU-KATRALI, Andreas THRASYVOULOU, Angeliki TSIGOURI (Greece); Gian Luigi MARCAZZAN, Maria Lucia PIANA, Maria Gioia PIAZZA, Anna Gloria SABATINI (Italy); Jacob KERKVLIET (Netherlands); Joana GODINHO (Portugal); Antonio BENTABOL, Alberto ORTIZ VALBUENA (Spain), Stefan BOGDANOV, Kaspar RUOFF (Switzerland)

Sucrose responsiveness and behavioral plasticity in honey bees (Apis mellifera)

Abstract: This review will focus on the relationships between sensory responses of bees and behavior. Sensory responsiveness constrains individual foraging plasticity and skews collective foraging decisions of colonies. We will concentrate on pollen, nectar, and water foraging behavior and will show that differences in the sucrose responsiveness of bees correlate with different behavioral roles, which supports the response threshold model of division of labor. We will also show how a colony's "allocation" of foragers into foraging roles results from individual differences in responsiveness to task-related stimuli and discuss hypotheses on the behavioral relevance of these differences. behavioral plasticity / sucrose responsiveness / foraging behavior / collective decision / response threshold model

Niche overlap and diet breadth in bumblebees; are rare species more specialized in their choice of flowers?

Abstract: The ecology of all bumblebees (Bombus spp.) is similar, yet some species have declined greatly while others remain abundant. We examine whether abundance is related to diet breadth. The floral visits of bumblebees were examined on Salisbury Plain, UK. All of the species examined gathered pollen mostly from Fabaceae. All species gathered nectar from a broader range of flowers than they did pollen, and longer-tongued bees had a narrower diet breadth when collecting nectar. B. hortorum (the species with the longest tongue) specialized on Trifolium pratense. As predicted, abundant species had a broader diet than rare species. Species with similar-length tongues visiting similar flowers. However, interspecific competition did not appear to be important since species with similar tongue lengths and high niche overlap co-occurred at high abundance. We suggest that the rare species may be those with short colony cycles, in which dependence on high quality food to rear larvae quickly forces specialization.

The biology of the small hive beetle (Aethina tumida, Coleoptera: Nitidulidae): Gaps in our knowledge of an invasive species

Abstract: Small hive beetles, Aethina tumida, are honeybee parasites native to Africa, where they are a minor pest only. In contrast, the beetles can be harmful parasites of European honeybee subspecies. Resistance of African subspecies to infestations is probably due to quantitative differences in a series of behaviours such as absconding, aggression, removal of parasite eggs and larvae and social encapsulation. The beetles use counter-resistance tactics such as defence posture, dropping, hiding, escape, egg laying in small gaps and trophallactic mimicry. Small hive beetles are efficient in long-range transportation (US: 1996, Australia: 2002) and can establish populations in temperate regions due to their overwintering capacity in honeybee clusters. Host shifts to other bee species may also occur. Thus, small hive beetles have the potential to become a global threat to apiculture and wild bee populations. However, our knowledge of the small hive beetle is still limited, creating demand for more research in all areas of its biology.

Sensory analysis applied to honey: state of the art

Abstract: Sensory analysis is the examination of a product through the evaluation of the attributes perceptible by the five sense organs (organoleptic attributes), such as colour, odour, taste, touch, texture and noise Used in many fields, sensory analysis allows to establish the organoleptic profile of diverse products (foods, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, textiles, household products), and can be useful in knowing how they are perceived by the consumer Until the 1960s, sensory analysis techniques basically relied on the personal experience of expert assessors This technique was simple and low cost, but it lacked the essential requisite of reproducibility in order to be considered a fully fledged analytical method In the second half of the twentieth century, new and improved sensory evaluation methods were developed using panels of assessors, well defined and controlled experimental protocols and statistical techniques for processing the results (Pangborn, 1964; Stone and Sidel, 1985; ISO 6658, 1985; SSHA and ISHA, 1990; Meilgaard et al, 1991) The advantage of these methods over traditional ones is that the results are reproducible, but the complexity and high costs limit their use to the field of research and development of new products, rather than the routine use in the framework of monitoring processes and quality control In the case of honey, sensory analysis was first used in France with traditional techniques, by the Gonnet team (Gonnet and Vache, 1979, 1985, 1992, 1998) In Italy, Gonnet’s ideas were taken up with particular enthusiasm; much effort was dedicated to training activities and an Italian Register of Experts in the Sensory Analysis of Honey was founded, which established a standard traditional methodology including harmonized terminology, evaluation forms, tasting methods, methods for training and selecting assessors and sensory descriptions of the principal Italian unifloral honeys (Persano Oddo et al, 1995, 2000; Istituto Nazionale di Apicoltura, 1999) Similarly, Gonnet’s legacy was also taken up and developed in other European countries (such as

Recruitment communication in stingless bees (Hymenoptera, Apidae, Meliponini)

Abstract: The stingless bees (Hymenoptera, Apidae, Meliponini) have evolved sophisticated communication systems that allow foragers to recruit nestmates to good resources. Over the past 50 years, a growing body of research has shown that foragers can communicate three-dimensional resource location, uncovered several potential communication mechanisms, and demonstrated new information transfer mechanisms. Some of these mechanisms are unique to stingless bees and some may provide insight into how the ability to encode location information, a form of functionally referential communication, has evolved in the highly social bees. The goal of this review is to examine meliponine recruitment communication, focusing on evidence for contact-based, visual, olfactory, and acoustic communication and what these mechanisms can tell us about the evolution of recruitment communication in stingless bees. Meliponini / information transfer / referential communication / recruitment / multimodality

Transmission of Kashmir bee virus by the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor

Abstract: The ability of the parasitic mite Varroa destructor to transmit Kashmir bee virus (KBV) to the Western honey bee (Apis mellifera) was investigated by exposing pupae from a KBV-negative colony to varying numbers of adult female mites from KBV-positive colonies. After five days, the virus status of pupae and the mites was determined by RT-PCR. There was a significant relationship between KBV- positive pupae and exposure to KBV-positive mites. No pupae were virus-positive when all the mites introduced into a given cell subsequently tested negative. Mites testing positive for KBV transmitted virus about 70% of the time. The percentage of KBV-positive V. destructor in a given cell also increased significantly, suggesting virus-free mites became virus-positive by cohabiting in the same cell with virus- positive mites, and we calculated the mite-to-mite transmission rate as 51%. There was 100% sequence identity of 415 bp KBV fragment amplified from bee pupae and mites, reflecting two isolates of the same virus source and supporting the conclusion of virus transmission from mite to bee pupae. Kashmir bee virus / transmission / Varroa destructor / RT-PCR

Group decision making in nest-site selection by honey bees

Abstract: In recent years, renewed attention has been paid to the mechanisms of group decision making that underlie the nest-site selection process in honey bees. We review the results of these new investigations by discussing how the recent work builds on the earlier descriptive studies of this decision-making process, how the decision-making abilities of swarms have been tested, and how the mechanisms of this decision- making process have been experimentally analyzed. We conclude by discussing how the scouts in a swarm sense when their group decision making is coming to an end and so should begin stimulating their quiescent swarm-mates to prepare for the flight to their new home. Apis mellifera / group decision making / honey bee / nest-site selection / swarming / waggle dance

Effects of coumaphos on queen rearing in the honey bee, Apis mellifera

Abstract: Young honey bee larvae were transferred into the queen cups containing known concentrations (0 to 1000 mg/kg) of the organophosphate pesticide coumaphos. These larvae were placed in queenless colonies and examined ten days later to determine the rate of rejection or acceptance as indicated by a mature sealed queen cell. All queens failed to develop at 1000 mg/kg, and greater than 50% of the queen cells were rejected at the 100 mg/kg concentration. Additionally, queens that survived exposure to100 mg/kg coumaphos weighed significantly less than control queens. The implications of exposure of developing queens to sublethal amounts of pesticides are discussed.

Pollen consumption in honey bee larvae: a step forward in the risk assessment of transgenic plants

Abstract: In order to assess the potential impacts of transgenic plants on larvae of the honey bee, Apis mellifera, information on pollen consumption is needed. We here report on experiments that were conducted with small bee colonies kept in field cages (8 × 14 m) containing only flowering maize plants as protein source. Fully grown worker bee larvae were found to contain between 1720 and 2310 maize pollen grains in their gut before defecation, corresponding to 1.52-2.04 mg of pollen consumed per larva. On average, 74.5% of pollen grains were completely digested while 23.3% were partially digested and 2.2% remained undigested. Our data indicate that the contribution of the protein by directly feeding larvae with pollen is less than 5% in relation to the total amount of protein necessary for complete larval development. We suggest that our measurement for pollen consumption should be taken into account when establishing dose regimes to assess the risk that transgenic plants pose for honey bee larvae. Apis mellifera / pollen consumption / transgenic plant / agrochemical / maize / risk assessment

Electronic nose and neural network use for the classification of honey

Abstract: Seventy samples of honey of different geographical and botanical origin were analysed with an electronic nose. The instrument, equipped with 10 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MOSFET) and 12 Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) sensors, was used to generate a pattern of the volatile compounds present in the honey samples. The sensor responses were evaluated by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Artificial Neural Network (ANN). Good results were obtained in the classification of honey samples by using a neural network model based on a multilayer perceptron that learned using a backpropagation algorithm. The methodology is simple, rapid and results suggest that the electronic nose could be a useful tool for the characterisation and control of honey. honey / electronic nose / classification / neural network analysis

A scientific note on Varroa destructor resistance to coumaphos in the United States.

Abstract: The beekeeping industry has limited products to control the parasitic mite Varroa destructor Anderson & Trueman. Mite resistance to acaricides is becoming all too common in many areas of the world. V. destructor resistance to fluvalinate in Italy (Lodesani et al., 1995) was followed by detection of fluvalinate resistant V. destructor in the United States (Baxter et al., 1998; Elzen et al., 1998; Pettis et al., 1998). In response to the loss in effectiveness of fluvalinate, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) granted CheckMite+, a slow release strip formulation of coumaphos, a limited use permit in 1998. Coumaphos in a different formulation has been used in Europe but the US was the first market to use the slow release strips. In 2003 the US will be in its fifth year of the use of CheckMite+TM (Bayer) for V. destructor control. In the fall of 2001, a commercial beekeeper in Maine (migratory between Maine and Florida) complained of high V. destructor populations following treatment of his colonies with CheckMite+. To determine if acaricide resistance was involved, experiments were conducted on mite populations in Maine and compared with mite populations in Maryland using a field assay originally developed to detect fluvalinate resistance (Pettis et al., 1998) that was modified to detect coumaphos resistance. Additionally, resistance assays were conducted on colonies in two commercial beekeeping operations in an area of Florida where the Maine beekeeper overwinters his colonies. The assay consisted of a 10 × 20 mm section of 10% CheckMite+ strip stapled to an index card and placed in a quart (ca. 450 mL) glass jar with a modified screen lid (Pettis et al., 1998). The assay was conducted by collecting samples of ca. 150 bees from each hive, placing them in the jars and 6 h later determining the number of mites killed. This assay was similar to the assay developed to test for fluvalinate resistance but the results were recorded in six hours instead of 24 hours as coumaphos acted faster to kill mites than did the fluvalinate. After recording the number of mites killed, heat or an alcohol/soap wash was used to remove any mites remaining on bees. Percent mortality was calculated as (number of mites killed in 6 h/total mites in the jar) × 100. The assay was conducted using a single lot number (#615168) of CheckMite+ strips on 24 colonies in Maine, 44 colonies in Beltsville, Maryland, and 24 colonies in Florida, 12 in each of two locations. The Maryland mite populations were assayed to allow for a comparison with a presumed “susceptible” population of mites. V. destructor in one of the USDA-ARS apiaries (Maryland #1, n = 20) had only been exposed to CheckMite+ for one season and were presumed susceptible, the second apiary (Maryland #2, n = 24) contained bees and mites that had originally come from Florida in 2000 and the history of acaricide use for this apiary was unknown. Percent mortality of mites was compared between locations using a general liner model and differences between means were analyzed using an LSD test (SAS, 1988). There was only 13% mortality for the mites in Maine, while mites in Maryland exhibited 80– 100% mortality and the mite mortality in two Florida apiaries were 7% and 80% (Tab. I). Significantly lower mite mortality was observed in Maine and Florida #2 compared to the other sites. Additionally, assay results from the apiaries in Maine were from colonies in which two legally

Effect of pre-wintering and wintering temperature regimes on weight loss, survival, and emergence time in the mason bee Osmia cornuta (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae)

Abstract: Osmia cornuta adults require exposure to wintering temperatures followed by incubation in the spring to emerge. We studied winter survival, weight loss, emergence time, and post-emergence longevity in O. cornuta exposed to a variety of pre-wintering and wintering treatments. Few bees emerged after exposure to wintering durations <30 days. Maximum survival and longevity were obtained with wintering durations of 90-150 days. Time to emergence following incubation declined with increasing wintering duration and increasing wintering temperature. Pre-wintering treatment had a dramatic effect on bee fitness. Bees pre-wintered for 15 days lost less weight, had higher survival and lived longer than bees pre-wintered for 45 or 75 days. In general, larger bees were more likely to survive the winter and lived longer than smaller bees. We discuss the relevance of these results to survival in wild O. cornuta populations and the management of populations used in orchard pollination. Osmia cornuta / wintering temperature / body weight / orchard pollination

Inner nest homeostasis in a changing environment with special emphasis on honey bee brood nursing and pollen supply

Abstract: To reproduce successfully, a honey bee colony has to rear brood efficiently. This requires a fecund queen and depends on the coordinated activities of workers in brood care, in foraging, and in maintaining inner nest homeostasis. Maintaining homeostasis involves thermal regulation of the brood area and providing a steady supply of nutrients, which requires building food reserves during favorable weather so that the brood can be well fed even during times of low nutritional influx. The workforce of adult bees is appropriately divided among the required tasks, and the wax comb itself is spatially organized in a way that saves energy and supports brood nursing. The ability to achieve this homeostasis results from a set of individual behaviors and communication processes performed in parallel by thousands of bees. In this review, we discuss these proximate individual mechanisms that lead to the precise regulation of the complex system that is a honey bee society. Apis mellifera / homeostasis / nursing / pollen / self-organization

Foraging behavior and pollinating effectiveness of Osmia cornuta (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae) and Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae) on “Comice” pear

Abstract: We studied the pollinating effectiveness of Osmia cornuta and Apis mellifera on 'Comice' pear. Osmia cornuta visited more flowers per minute (13.8) than A. mellifera (7.1-9.8). Both species visited similar numbers of flowers per tree (6.7-7.9), and switched rows with similar frequency (4.0-7.9%). Rate of stigma contact was 98.7% for O. cornuta, 51.8% for A. mellifera pollen-nectar foragers, and 19.0% for A. mellifera nectar foragers. Fruit-set in flowers visited once was 28.9, 29.3, and 12.9%, respectively. Seed- set was similar (7-8 seeds per fruit) in all three types of flowers. Osmia cornuta females provisioned their nests with 94.4% pear pollen. Stepwise multiple regression showed that fruitlet-set across the orchard was mostly related to tree size (trees with fewer flowers set more fruit per flower) (β = -0.64; P <0 .001), whereas seed-set at harvest was best explained by O. cornuta (β = 0.47; P < 0.005) and A. mellifera (β = 0.35; P < 0.05) spatial distribution. Osmia cornuta / Apis mellifera / pollinating effectiveness / pear pollination

Determination of honey botanical origin: problems and issues

Abstract: The International Honey Commission (IHC) is a network created in 1990, under the umbrella of Apimondia, for the enhancement of knowledge on honey quality and research. The main objective of the work of the IHC is to improve honey analysis methods and to propose new quality criteria. The commission, chaired by Stefan Bogdanov until 1997, harmonised and compiled the methods of analysis currently used in routine honey control and carried out ring trials for some of them. The new methods for honey analysis were published in an extra issue of Apidologie (Bogdanov et al., 1997), and generated corresponding honey quality criteria (Bogdanov et al., 1999). The results achieved by the IHC were taken into account in the recent revision of the Codex Alimentarius honey standard (Codex Alimentarius, 2001) and of the European Honey Directive (European Commission, 2002). Since 1998 the IHC has been chaired by Werner von der Ohe (werner.von-der-ohe@laves.niedersachsen.de); Stefan Bogdanov (stefan.bogdanov@ alp.admin.ch) is vice-chairman and Peter Martin (honeysci@aol.com) is secretary. Some working groups are constituted within the IHC, dealing with specific topics, among which “Melissopalynological analysis”, chaired by Werner von der Ohe, “Unifloral honeys” and “Sensory analysis”, both chaired by Livia Persano Oddo (livia.persano@apicoltura.org). The results of the work of these groups are reported in the present monograph, where all important issues regarding the European unifloral honeys are discussed. The commission regularly meets once a year. At the beginning of 2004 there were 46 IHC members from 20 countries. Representatives of other countries are welcome for the future work of the IHC. The current work of the IHC is mirrored at the homepage of the group (http://www.apis.admin.ch/host/honey/ introduction.htm).

Botanical species giving unifloral honey in Europe

Abstract: a Istituto Sperimentale per la Zoologia Agraria, Sezione di Apicoltura, Roma, Italy b Federal Dairy Research Station, Swiss Bee Research Centre, Liebefeld, Switzerland c Casa de la miel, Tenerife, Canarias, Spain d Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Mediterranean Agronomic Institute of Chania, Crete, Greece e Inspectorate for Health Protection and Veterinary Public Health, Amsterdam, The Netherlands f Honey International Packers Association, London, UK g Bernard Michaud S.A., Jurancon, France h Centro Regional Apicola, Guadalajara, Spain i Niedersachsisches Landesinstitut fur Bienenkunde, Celle, Germany

Information flow and organization of stingless bee foraging

Abstract: Stingless bees (Hymenoptera, Apidae, Meliponini) live in populous permanent colonies and face the same problem as other foraging social insects: how to coordinate the worker's actions and respond to the spatio-temporal uncertainties of food availability in their habitat Here we review the (social) information used by individual foragers and how organized collective foraging emerges from the individual actions We also address intra- and interspecific competition for food and the impact of the African honey bee on stingless bee collective foraging Melipona / Trigona / self-organization / communication / foraging / Africanized honeybee / insect society

Information flow and regulation of foraging activity in bumble bees (Bombus spp.)

Abstract: Communication in the context of foraging in bumble bees has received less attention than in other social bees. Yet, recent studies have revealed that information flow mediates colony foraging activity. The species studied do not recruit to specific locations, but bees can learn the scent of food sources at the nest, which may reduce their search time. Location communication may not confer high benefits to bumble bees. But bees react to nectar influx with increased foraging activity, with high quality food eliciting more activity. This shows that bees recognize and sample freshly collected nectar. If the colony has no demand for food, foraging activity does not increase. Successful foragers distribute a tergal gland pheromone in the nest that also elicits higher foraging activity. Information exchange in the nest thus enables bumble bees to base their decision to forage on demand and the presence and profitability of food. Bombus terrestris / recruitment / social insect / collective foraging / communication

The vibration signal, modulatory communication and the organization of labor in honey bees, Apis mellifera

Abstract: Cooperative activities in honey bee colonies involve the coordinated interactions of multiple workers that perform different, but interrelated tasks. A central objective in the study of honey bee sociality therefore is to understand the communication signals used to integrate behavior within and among worker groups. This paper focuses on the role of the "vibration signal" in organizing labor in honey bee colonies. The vibration signal functions as a type of "modulatory communication signal". It is directed toward diverse recipients, causes a non-specific increase in activity that may alter responsiveness to a wide array of stimuli, and thus may influence the performance of many different tasks simultaneously. We review the empirical evidence that the signal is involved in coordinating at least three colony-level activities: food collection and foraging-dependent tasks, queen behavior during swarming and queen replacement, and house hunting by honey bee swarms. Signals that function like the vibration signal may be widespread in highly social insects and social animals in general, and may help to fine-tune the collective decision-making processes that underlie cooperative actions in a wide array of species. vibration signal / modulatory communication / collective decision making / Apis mellifera / multimodal signals

Cued in: honey bee pheromones as information flow and collective decision-making

Abstract: Recent studies using diverse disciplines ranging from classical behavioral assays to quantitative trait locus mapping, have revealed that chemical communication in honey bees is generally complex. Pheromones that are blends of multiple components are the rule rather than the exception. Subsets of multiple component blends regulate common and different systems. Reviewed are recent studies in pheromone regulation of colony defense, foraging ontogeny, and retinue behavior. Honey bee chemical communication is discussed as an emergent property of a complex system with dynamic properties calling for a complex systems approach of analysis. Apis mellifera / pheromone / chemical communication / social regulation / emergent property / complex system

Multivariate morphometric analysis of honeybees (Apis mellifera) in the Ethiopian region

Abstract: Honeybees sampled from 285 colonies at 57 localities were morphometrically analysed. The multivariate analysis established five statistically separable morphoclusters occupying ecologically different areas: Apis mellifera jemenitica in the northwest and eastern arid and semi-arid lowlands; A. m. scutellata in the west, south and southwest humid midlands; A. m. bandasii, in the central moist highlands; A. m. monticola from the northern mountainous highlands; and A.m.woyi-gambell in south western semi-arid to sub-humid lowland parts of the country. Moreover some areas with high inter and intracolonial variances were noted, suggesting introgression among these defined honeybee populations.

Polymerase Chain Reaction detection of deformed wing virus (DWV) in Apis mellifera and Varroa destructor

Abstract: We have developed a specific assay for the detection of deformed wing virus (DWV) in Apis mellifera L. and Varroa destructor based on the reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) technology. Primers were designed from the sequence of a 4700 nucleotides cDNA fragment located in the 3'-end of the DWV genome. This fragment encodes a single open reading frame of 1565 amino acids showing similarity to viral RNA dependent RNA polymerase consensus motif. RT-PCR assays from DWV infected individual mite or bee produced a 395 nucleotide DNA fragment clearly identifiable by agarose gel electrophoresis. The signal in bees having deformed wings was significantly higher than in normal ones. A search for DWV in 40 colonies showed that DWV is broadly distributed in bee colonies and mites. As an average, greater virus prevalence of virus was detected in bees collected in autumn compared to bees collected in spring or during the summer period. deformed wing virus (DWV) / diagnosis / bee virus / Varroa destructor

The energy and nutritional demand of the parasitic life of the mite Varroa destructor

Abstract: The energy metabolism and nutritional demand of the ectoparasitic mite Varroa destructor Anderson and Trueman was investigated by calorimetry, respirometry and resource utilization rate. Mites from different sexes and developmental stages of the western honeybee Apis mellifera were monitored in the absence of the host. Energy metabolism of the mites, calculated from the rate of heat production, was an insignificant factor in the cause of honeybee colony death. The metabolic rates of mites ranged from 1.1% to 2.4% of that of the bee pupa depending on the infestation level. But the nutritional demand of the mites was very high, owing to their inefficient metabolic machinery, utilizing up to 25% of the nutritional reserves of the pupae accumulated in tissue during the larval stage. The feeding of the mites contributes to the malformation and weakening of the bees and eventually of the colony.

Nosema apis infection in worker and queen Apis mellifera

Abstract: Worker and queen honey bees were fed individually with Nosema apis spores in sucrose solution and then returned to cages containing several hundred of their worker bee nestmates. After 3 to 7 days, the workers and queens that had been fed spores were sacrificed. Worker and queen ventriculi were removed and examined for spores by light microscopy, and DNA was extracted. The DNA was subjected to amplification with polymerase chain reaction, using primer sequences specific to N. apis DNA. The PCR analysis was more sensitive than examination for spores by light microscopy, in detecting N. apis infection. Worker bees and queen bees were infected at similar rates by the inoculation procedure.

Comparison of the antimicrobial activity of honey produced by Tetragonisca angustula (Meliponinae) and Apis mellifera from different phytogeographic regions of Costa Rica

Abstract: The purpose of the present study was to investigate and compare the demonstrated variation in antimicrobial activity of honey produced by introduced A. mellifera and the stingless bee, Tetragonisca angustula, commonly kept in hives in Costa Rica. There was no difference in activity of honey produced by Apis mellifera and T. angustula against the 5 microbes tested. Honey from different phytogeographic regions exhibited differential antimicrobial activity and susceptibility of yeasts to honey of either species was greater than that of bacteria.

Development of hypopharyngeal glands in adult honey bees fed with a Bt toxin, a biotin-binding protein and a protease inhibitor

Abstract: To investigate potential impacts of insecticidal transgene products on hypopharyngeal gland development, newly-emerged adult honey bees were kept in cages and fed for ten days with a pollen-food to which one of the following proteins had been added at concentrations equivalent to pollen expressing 1.25% (of total protein) aprotinin, 11.2 µM avidin or 0.3% Cry1Ba protein. Control bees were fed pollen- food without additive, with casein added, or pollen-candy. None of the treatments significantly affected bee survival, or the mean diameters of gland acini, gland mass or protein content on Days 1, 4, 8 or 10. Bees consumed significantly more of the pollen-candy than the other foods. Assays showed no evidence of aprotinin, avidin or Cry1Ba in the glands of bees fed with these proteins. Thus effects of these transgene products on gland development are unlikely, but field trials using transgenic plants are required for a full assessment. Apis mellifera / hypopharyngeal gland / insecticidal transgenic plant protein / laboratory assay

Non-lethal sampling of honey bee, Apis mellifera, DNA using wing tips

Abstract: DNA sampling of insects frequently relies upon lethal or invasive methods. Because insect colonies contain numerous workers it is often possible to destructively sample workers for genetic analysis. However, this is not possible if queens or workers must remain alive after sampling. Neither is it possible to remove an entire leg, wing or other appendage as this will often hinder normal behaviour. This study investigates the possibility of genotyping queen honey bees Apis mellifera using DNA extracted from wing tips so that flight and other activities are unaffected. Our results show that wing tip samples (c. 1.3 mm2) provide good quality DNA which gives reliable genotypes when PCR amplified (94.3% success rate). Wing tip DNA sampling will permit a variety of novel research approaches, including genotyping of queens at emergence in breeding programs where certain patrilines or genotypes are preferred, and genotyping workers and queens which must behave normally following sampling.