Showing papers in "Applied Physics Letters in 2016"

Acoustic metasurface-based perfect absorber with deep subwavelength thickness

Abstract: Conventional acoustic absorbers are used to have a structure with a thickness comparable to the working wavelength, resulting in major obstacles in real applications in low frequency range. We present a metasurface-based perfect absorber capable of achieving the total absorption of acoustic wave in an extremely low frequency region. The metasurface possessing a deep subwavelength thickness down to a feature size of ∼λ/223 is composed of a perforated plate and a coiled coplanar air chamber. Simulations based on fully coupled acoustic with thermodynamic equations and theoretical impedance analysis are utilized to reveal the underlying physics and the acoustic performances, showing an excellent agreement. Our realization should have an high impact on amount of applications due to the extremely thin thickness, easy fabrication, and high efficiency of the proposed structure.

Intrinsic electron mobility limits in β-Ga2O3

Abstract: By systematically comparing experimental and theoretical transport properties, we identify the polar optical phonon scattering as the dominant mechanism limiting electron mobility in β–Ga2O3 to <200 cm2/V s at 300 K for donor doping densities lower than ∼1018 cm–3. Despite similar electron effective mass of β–Ga2O3 to GaN, the electron mobility is ∼10× lower because of a massive Frohlich interaction, due to the low phonon energies stemming from the crystal structure and strong bond ionicity. Based on the theoretical and experimental analysis, we provide an empirical expression for electron mobility in β–Ga2O3 that should help calibrate its potential in high performance device design and applications.

On Mott-Schottky analysis interpretation of capacitance measurements in organometal perovskite solar cells

Abstract: Capacitance response of perovskite-based solar cells (PSCs) can be exploited to infer underlying physical mechanisms, both in the materials bulk and at outer interfaces. Particularly interesting is applying the depletion layer capacitance theory to PSCs, following common procedures used with inorganic and organic photovoltaic devices. Voltage-modulation of the depletion layer width allows extracting relevant parameters as the absorber defect density and built-in potential by means of the Mott-Schottky (MS) analysis. However, the uncritical use of the MS technique may be misleading and yields incorrect outcomes as a consequence of masking effects that accumulation capacitances, commonly observed in PSCs, produce on the measured capacitance value. Rules are provided here to select the measuring frequency that allows extracting depletion layer capacitance, and the voltage range in which it dominates, avoiding accumulation capacitive parasitic contributions. It is noted that the distinction of the depletion c...

Enhancement-mode Ga2O3 wrap-gate fin field-effect transistors on native (100) β-Ga2O3 substrate with high breakdown voltage

Abstract: Sn-doped gallium oxide (Ga2O3) wrap-gate fin-array field-effect transistors (finFETs) were formed by top-down BCl3 plasma etching on a native semi-insulating Mg-doped (100) β-Ga2O3 substrate. The fin channels have a triangular cross-section and are approximately 300 nm wide and 200 nm tall. FinFETs, with 20 nm Al2O3 gate dielectric and ∼2 μm wrap-gate, demonstrate normally-off operation with a threshold voltage between 0 and +1 V during high-voltage operation. The ION/IOFF ratio is greater than 105 and is mainly limited by high on-resistance that can be significantly improved. At VG = 0, a finFET with 21 μm gate-drain spacing achieved a three-terminal breakdown voltage exceeding 600 V without a field-plate.

Design, fabrication, and measurement of reflective metasurface for orbital angular momentum vortex wave in radio frequency domain

Abstract: In this paper, a reflective metasurface is designed, fabricated, and experimentally demonstrated to generate an orbital angular momentum (OAM) vortexwave in radio frequency domain. Theoretical formula of phase-shift distribution is deduced and used to design the metasurface producing vortexradio waves. The prototype of a practical configuration is designed, fabricated, and measured to validate the theoretical analysis at 5.8 GHz. The simulated and experimental results verify that the vortexwaves with different OAM mode numbers can be flexibly generated by using sub-wavelength reflective metasurfaces. The proposed method and metasurface pave a way to generate the OAM vortexwaves for radio and microwave wireless communication applications.

Ultra-thin metamaterial for perfect and quasi-omnidirectional sound absorption

Abstract: Using the concepts of slow sound and critical coupling, an ultra-thin acoustic metamaterial panel for perfect and quasi-omnidirectional absorption is theoretically and experimentally conceived in this work. The system is made of a rigid panel with a periodic distribution of thin closed slits, the upper wall of which is loaded by Helmholtz Resonators (HRs). The presence of resonators produces a slow sound propagation shifting the resonance frequency of the slit to the deep sub-wavelength regime ( λ/88). By controlling the geometry of the slit and the HRs, the intrinsic visco-thermal losses can be tuned in order to exactly compensate the energy leakage of the system and fulfill the critical coupling condition to create the perfect absorption of sound in a large range of incidence angles due to the deep subwavelength behavior.

2D-2D tunneling field-effect transistors using WSe2/SnSe2 heterostructures

Abstract: Two-dimensional materials present a versatile platform for developing steep transistors due to their uniform thickness and sharp band edges. We demonstrate 2D-2D tunneling in a WSe2/SnSe2 van der Waals vertical heterojunction device, where WSe2 is used as the gate controlled p-layer and SnSe2 is the degenerately n-type layer. The van der Waals gap facilitates the regulation of band alignment at the heterojunction, without the necessity of a tunneling barrier. ZrO2 is used as the gate dielectric, allowing the scaling of gate oxide to improve device subthreshold swing. Efficient gate control and clean interfaces yield a subthreshold swing of ∼100 mV/dec for >2 decades of drain current at room temperature, hitherto unobserved in 2D-2D tunneling devices. The subthreshold swing is independent of temperature, which is a clear signature of band-to-band tunneling at the heterojunction. A maximum switching ratio ION/IOFF of 107 is obtained. Negative differential resistance in the forward bias characteristics is observed at 77 K. This work bodes well for the possibilities of two-dimensional materials for the realization of energy-efficient future-generation electronics.

Temperature-dependent capacitance–voltage and current–voltage characteristics of Pt/Ga2O3 (001) Schottky barrier diodes fabricated on n––Ga2O3 drift layers grown by halide vapor phase epitaxy

Abstract: We investigated the temperature-dependent electrical properties of Pt/Ga2O3 Schottky barrier diodes (SBDs) fabricated on n–-Ga2O3 drift layers grown on single-crystal n+-Ga2O3 (001) substrates by halide vapor phase epitaxy. In an operating temperature range from 21 °C to 200 °C, the Pt/Ga2O3 (001) Schottky contact exhibited a zero-bias barrier height of 1.09–1.15 eV with a constant near-unity ideality factor. The current–voltage characteristics of the SBDs were well-modeled by thermionic emission in the forward regime and thermionic field emission in the reverse regime over the entire temperature range.

Generating multiple orbital angular momentum vortex beams using a metasurface in radio frequency domain

Abstract: In this paper, an electromagnetic metasurface is designed, fabricated, and experimentally demonstrated to generate multiple orbital angular momentum (OAM) vortex beams in radio frequency domain. Theoretical formula of compensated phase-shift distribution is deduced and used to design the metasurface to produce multiple vortex radio waves in different directions with different OAM modes. The prototype of a practical configuration of square-patch metasurface is designed, fabricated, and measured to validate the theoretical analysis at 5.8 GHz. The simulated and experimental results verify that multiple OAM vortex waves can be simultaneously generated by using a single electromagnetic metasurface. The proposed method paves an effective way to generate multiple OAM vortex waves in radio and microwave wireless communication applications.

All-dielectric phase-change reconfigurable metasurface

Abstract: We harness non-volatile, amorphous-crystalline transitions in the chalcogenide phase-change medium germanium antimony telluride (GST) to realize optically-switchable, all-dielectric metamaterials. Nanostructured, subwavelength-thickness films of GST present high-quality resonances that are spectrally shifted by laser-induced structural transitions, providing reflectivity and transmission switching contrast ratios of up to 5:1 (7dB) at visible/near-infrared wavelengths selected by design.

Deep level defects throughout the bandgap of (010) β-Ga2O3 detected by optically and thermally stimulated defect spectroscopy

Abstract: Deep level optical spectroscopy (DLOS) and deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) measurements performed on Ni/β-Ga2O3 Schottky diodes fabricated on unintentionally doped (010) substrates prepared by edge-defined film-fed growth revealed a rich spectrum of defect states throughout the 4.84 eV bandgap of β-Ga2O3. Five distinct defect states were detected at EC − 0.62 eV, 0.82 eV, 1.00 eV, 2.16 eV, and 4.40 eV. The EC − 0.82 eV and 4.40 eV levels are dominant, with concentrations on the order of 1016 cm−3. The three DLTS-detected traps at EC − 0.62 eV, 0.82 eV, and 1.00 eV are similar to traps reported in Czochralski-grown β-Ga2O3, [K. Irmscher et al., J. Appl. Phys. 110, 063720 (2011)], suggesting possibly common sources. The DLOS-detected states at EC − 2.16 eV and 4.40 eV exhibit significant lattice relaxation effects in their optical transitions associated with strongly bound defects. As a consequence of this study, the Ni/β-Ga2O3 (010) Schottky barrier height was determined to be 1.55 eV, with good c...

Ultra-low switching energy and scaling in electric-field-controlled nanoscale magnetic tunnel junctions with high resistance-area product

Abstract: We report electric-field-induced switching with write energies down to 6 fJ/bit for switching times of 0.5 ns, in nanoscale perpendicular magnetic tunnel junctions (MTJs) with high resistance-area product and diameters down to 50 nm. The ultra-low switching energy is made possible by a thick MgO barrier that ensures negligible spin-transfer torque contributions, along with a reduction of the Ohmic dissipation. We find that the switching voltage and time are insensitive to the junction diameter for high-resistance MTJs, a result accounted for by a macrospin model of purely voltage-induced switching. The measured performance enables integration with same-size CMOS transistors in compact memory and logic integrated circuits.

Evidence for oxygen vacancies movement during wake-up in ferroelectric hafnium oxide

Abstract: The wake-up effect which is observed in ferroelectric hafnium oxide is investigated in yttrium doped hafnium oxide prepared by chemical solution deposition. It can be shown that not the amount of cycles but the duration of the applied electrical field is essential for the wake-up. Temperature dependent wake-up cycling in a range of −160 °C to 100 °C reveals a strong temperature activation of the wake-up, which can be attributed to ion rearrangement during cycling. By using asymmetrical electrodes, resistive valence change mechanism switching can be observed coincident with ferroelectric switching. From the given results, it can be concluded that redistribution of oxygen vacancies is the origin of the wake-up effect.

An optically pumped 2.5 μm GeSn laser on Si operating at 110 K

Abstract: This paper reports the demonstration of optically pumped GeSn edge-emitting lasers grown on Si substrates The whole device structures were grown by an industry standard chemical vapor deposition reactor using the low cost commercially available precursors SnCl4 and GeH4 in a single run epitaxy process Temperature-dependent characteristics of laser-output versus pumping-laser-input showed lasing operation up to 110 K The 10 K lasing threshold and wavelength were measured as 68 kW/cm2 and 2476 nm, respectively Lasing characteristic temperature (T0) was extracted as 65 K

Mechanisms for light induced degradation in MAPbI3 perovskite thin films and solar cells

Abstract: Organometal halide perovskites are highly promising materials for photovoltaic applications, yet their rapid degradation remains a significant challenge. Here, the light-induced structural degradation mechanism of methylammonium lead iodide (MAPbI3) perovskite films and devices is studied in low humidity environment using X-Ray Diffraction, Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) absorption spectroscopy, Extended X-ray Absorption Fine Structure spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy, and device measurements. Under dry conditions, the perovskite film degrades only in the presence of both light and oxygen, which together induce the formation of halide anions through donation of electrons to the surrounding oxygen. The halide anions generate free radicals that deprotonate the methylammonium cation and form the highly volatile CH3NH2 molecules that escape and leave pure PbI2 behind. The device findings show that changes in the local structure at the TiO2 mesoporous layer occur with light, even in the abse...

3D Print of Polymer Bonded Rare-Earth Magnets, and 3D Magnetic Field Scanning With an End-User 3D Printer

Abstract: 3D print is a recently developed technique, for single-unit production, and for structures that have been impossible to build previously. The current work presents a method to 3D print polymer bonded isotropic hard magnets with a low-cost, end-user 3D printer. Commercially available isotropic NdFeB powder inside a PA11 matrix is characterized, and prepared for the printing process. An example of a printed magnet with a complex shape that was designed to generate a specific stray field is presented, and compared with finite element simulation solving the macroscopic Maxwell equations. For magnetic characterization, and comparing 3D printed structures with injection molded parts, hysteresis measurements are performed. To measure the stray field outside the magnet, the printer is upgraded to a 3D magnetic flux density measurement system. To skip an elaborate adjusting of the sensor, a simulation is used to calibrate the angles, sensitivity, and the offset of the sensor. With this setup, a measurement resolut...

A sound absorbing metasurface with coupled resonators

Abstract: An impedance matched surface is able, in principle, to totally absorb the incident sound and yield no reflection, and this is desired in many acoustic applications. Here we demonstrate a design of impedance matched sound absorbing surface with a simple construction. By coupling different resonators and generating a hybrid resonance mode, we designed and fabricated a metasurface that is impedance-matched to airborne sound at tunable frequencies with subwavelength scale unit cells. With careful design of the coupled resonators, over 99% energy absorption at central frequency of 511 Hz with a 50% absorption bandwidth of 140 Hz is achieved experimentally. The proposed design can be easily fabricated, and is mechanically stable. The proposed metasurface can be used in many sound absorption applications such as loudspeaker design and architectural acoustics.

Homoepitaxial growth of β-Ga2O3 thin films by low pressure chemical vapor deposition

Abstract: This paper presents the homoepitaxial growth of phase pure (010) β-Ga2O3 thin films on (010) β-Ga2O3 substrate by low pressure chemical vapor deposition. The effects of growth temperature on the surface morphology and crystal quality of the thin films were systematically investigated. The thin films were synthesized using high purity metallic gallium (Ga) and oxygen (O2) as precursors for gallium and oxygen, respectively. The surface morphology and structural properties of the thin films were characterized by atomic force microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and high resolution transmission electron microscopy. Material characterization indicates the growth temperature played an important role in controlling both surface morphology and crystal quality of the β-Ga2O3 thin films. The smallest root-mean-square surface roughness of ∼7 nm was for thin films grown at a temperature of 950 °C, whereas the highest growth rate (∼1.3 μm/h) with a fixed oxygen flow rate was obtained for the epitaxial layers grown at 850 °C.

An accurate locally active memristor model for S-type negative differential resistance in NbOx

Abstract: A number of important commercial applications would benefit from the introduction of easily manufactured devices that exhibit current-controlled, or “S-type,” negative differential resistance (NDR). A leading example is emerging non-volatile memory based on crossbar array architectures. Due to the inherently linear current vs. voltage characteristics of candidate non-volatile memristor memory elements, individual memory cells in these crossbar arrays can be addressed only if a highly non-linear circuit element, termed a “selector,” is incorporated in the cell. Selectors based on a layer of niobium oxide sandwiched between two electrodes have been investigated by a number of groups because the NDR they exhibit provides a promisingly large non-linearity. We have developed a highly accurate compact dynamical model for their electrical conduction that shows that the NDR in these devices results from a thermal feedback mechanism. A series of electrothermal measurements and numerical simulations corroborate this model. These results reveal that the leakage currents can be minimized by thermally isolating the selector or by incorporating materials with larger activation energies for electron motion.

Electronic properties of freestanding Ti3C2Tx MXene monolayers

Abstract: We report on the electrical characterization of single MXene Ti3C2Tx flakes (where T is a surface termination) and demonstrate the metallic nature of their conductivities. We also show that the carrier density can be modulated by an external gate voltage. The density of free carriers is estimated to be 8 ± 3 × 1021 cm−3 while their mobility is estimated to be 0.7 ± 0.2 cm2/V s. Electrical measurements, in the presence of a magnetic field, show a small, but clearly discernable, quadratic increase in conductance at 2.5 K.

Is organic photovoltaics promising for indoor applications

Abstract: This work utilizes organic photovoltaics (OPV) for indoor applications, such as powering small electronic devices or wireless connected Internet of Things. Three representative polymer-based OPV systems, namely, poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl), poly[N-9′-heptadecanyl-2,7-carbazole-alt-5,5-(4′,7′-di-2-thienyl-2′,1′,3′-benzothiadiazole)], and poly[[4,8-bis[(2-ethylhexyl)oxy]benzo[1,2-b:4,5-b′]dithiophene-2,6-diyl][3-fluoro-2-[(2-ethylhexyl)carbonyl]thieno[3,4-b]thiophenediyl]], were selected as the donor materials in blend with fullerene derivatives for comparison under low light level condition using fluorescent lamps. PCDTBT based devices are found to be the best performing system, generating 13.9 μW/cm2 corresponding to 16.6% power conversion efficiency at 300 lx, although PTB7 based devices show the highest efficiency under one sun conditions. This high performance suggests that OPV is competitive to the other PV technologies under low light condition despite much lower performance under one sun conditi...

Bi-directional conversion between microwave and optical frequencies in a piezoelectric optomechanical device

Abstract: We describe the principles of design, fabrication, and operation of a piezoelectric optomechanical crystal with which we demonstrate bi-directional conversion of energy between microwave and optical frequencies. The optomechanical crystal has an optical mode at 1523 nm co-located with a mechanical breathing mode at 3.8 GHz, with a measured optomechanical coupling strength gom/2π of 115 kHz. The breathing mode is driven and detected by curved interdigitated transducers that couple to a Lamb mode in suspended membranes on either end of the optomechanical crystal, allowing the external piezoelectric modulation of the optical signal as well as the converse, the detection of microwave electrical signals generated by a modulated optical signal. We compare measurements to theory where appropriate.

Real-time dual-comb spectroscopy with a free-running bidirectionally mode-locked fiber laser

Abstract: Dual-comb technique has enabled exciting applications in high resolution spectroscopy, precision distance measurements, and 3D imaging. Major advantages over traditional methods can be achieved with dual-comb technique. For example, dual-comb spectroscopy provides orders of magnitude improvement in acquisition speed over standard Fourier-transform spectroscopy while still preserving the high resolution capability. Wider adoption of the technique has, however, been hindered by the need for complex and expensive ultrafast laser systems. Here, we present a simple and robust dual-comb system that employs a free-running bidirectionally mode-locked fiber laser operating at telecommunication wavelength. Two femtosecond frequency combs (with a small difference in repetition rates) are generated from a single laser cavity to ensure mutual coherent properties and common noise cancellation. As the result, we have achieved real-time absorption spectroscopy measurements without the need for complex servo locking with accurate frequency referencing, and relatively high signal-to-noise ratio.

Band engineering in transition metal dichalcogenides: Stacked versus lateral heterostructures

Abstract: We calculate a large difference in the band alignments for transition metal dichalcogenide (TMD) heterojunctions when arranged in the stacked layer or lateral (in-plane) geometries, using direct supercell calculations. The stacked case follows the unpinned limit of the electron affinity rule, whereas the lateral geometry follows the strongly pinned limit of alignment of charge neutrality levels. TMDs therefore provide one of the few clear tests of band alignment models, whereas three-dimensional semiconductors give less stringent tests because of accidental chemical trends in their properties.

Dynamical study of bubble expansion following laser ablation in liquids

Abstract: This work examines the initial growth and collapse stages of bubbles induced by laser ablation in liquids. First, the bubble shape and size are tracked using an ultrafast camera in a shadowgraph imaging setup. The use of an ultrafast camera ensures a high control of the reproducibility, because a thorough measurement of each bubble lifetime is performed. Next, an analytical cavitation-based model is developed to assess the thermodynamic bubble properties. This study demonstrates that the bubble evolution is adiabatic and driven by inertial forces. Surprisingly, it is found that the bubbles consist of significantly more solvent molecules than ablated matter. These results are valuable to the field of nanoparticle synthesis as they provide insight into the mechanics of laser ablation in liquids.

High transmission acoustic focusing by impedance-matched acoustic meta-surfaces

Abstract: Impedance is an important issue in the design of acoustic lenses because mismatched impedance is detrimental to real focusing applications. Here, we report two designs of acoustic lenses that focus acoustic waves in water and air, respectively. They are tailored by acoustic meta-surfaces, which are rigid thin plates decorated with periodically distributed sub-wavelength slits. Their respective building blocks are constructed from the coiling-up spaces in water and the layered structures in air. Analytic analysis based on coupled-mode theory and transfer matrix reveals that the impedances of the lenses are matched to those of the background media. With these impedance-matched acoustic lenses, we demonstrate the acoustic focusing effect by finite-element simulations.

Impact of mechanical stress on ferroelectricity in (Hf0.5Zr0.5)O2 thin films

Abstract: To investigate the impact of mechanical stress on their ferroelectric properties, polycrystalline (Hf0.5Zr0.5)O2 thin films were deposited on (111)Pt-coated SiO2, Si, and CaF2 substrates with thermal expansion coefficients of 0.47, 4.5, and 22 × 10−6/ °C, respectively. In-plane X-ray diffraction measurements revealed that the (Hf0.5Zr0.5)O2 thin films deposited on SiO2 and Si substrates were under in-plane tensile strain and that their volume fraction of monoclinic phase decreased as this strain increased. In contrast, films deposited on CaF2 substrates were under in-plane compressive strain, and their volume fraction of monoclinic phase was the largest among the three kinds of substrates. The maximum remanent polarization of 9.3 μC/cm2 was observed for Pt/(Hf0.5Zr0.5)O2/Pt/TiO2/SiO2, while ferroelectricity was barely observable for Pt/(Hf0.5Zr0.5)O2/Pt/TiO2/SiO2/CaF2. This result suggests that the in-plane tensile strain effectively enhanced the ferroelectricity of the (Hf0.5Zr0.5)O2 thin films.

Highly accurate thickness measurement of multi-layered automotive paints using terahertz technology

Abstract: In this contribution, we present a highly accurate approach for thickness measurements of multi-layered automotive paints using terahertz time domain spectroscopy in reflection geometry. The proposed method combines the benefits of a model-based material parameters extraction method to calibrate the paint coatings, a generalized Rouard's method to simulate the terahertz radiation behavior within arbitrary thin films, and the robustness of a powerful evolutionary optimization algorithm to increase the sensitivity of the minimum thickness measurement limit. Within the framework of this work, a self-calibration model is introduced, which takes into consideration the real industrial challenges such as the effect of wet-on-wet spray in the painting process.

Superstrong coupling of a microwave cavity to yttrium iron garnet magnons

Abstract: Multiple-post reentrant 3D lumped cavity modes have been realized to design the concept of a discrete Whispering Gallery and Fabry-Perot-like Modes for multimode microwave Quantum Electrodynamics experiments. Using the magnon spin-wave resonance of a submillimeter-sized Yttrium-Iron-Garnet sphere at millikelvin temperatures and a four-post cavity, we demonstrate the ultra-strong coupling regime between discrete Whispering Gallery Modes and a magnon resonance with a strength of 1.84 GHz. By increasing the number of posts to eight and arranging them in a D4 symmetry pattern, we expand the mode structure to that of a discrete Fabry-Perot cavity and modify the Free Spectral Range (FSR). We reach the superstrong coupling regime, where spin-photon coupling strength is larger than FSR, with coupling strength in the 1.1 to 1.5 GHz range.

Acoustic energy harvesting based on a planar acoustic metamaterial

Abstract: We theoretically report on an innovative and practical acoustic energy harvester based on a defected acoustic metamaterial (AMM) with piezoelectric material. The idea is to create suitable resonant defects in an AMM to confine the strain energy originating from an acoustic incidence. This scavenged energy is converted into electrical energy by attaching a structured piezoelectric material into the defect area of the AMM. We show an acoustic energy harvester based on a meta-structure capable of producing electrical power from an acoustic pressure. Numerical simulations are provided to analyze and elucidate the principles and the performances of the proposed system. A maximum output voltage of 1.3 V and a power density of 0.54 μW/cm3 are obtained at a frequency of 2257.5 Hz. The proposed concept should have broad applications on energy harvesting as well as on low-frequency sound isolation, since this system acts as both acoustic insulator and energy harvester.