Showing papers in "Australian Journal of Teacher Education in 2007"

Unpacking the Millennials: A Cautionary Tale for Teacher Education

Abstract: This paper is about the millennial generation. Much has been written about the generation: their character; beliefs; motivations; values; and future potentialities. This literature has gained momentum as marketers, employers, and educators seek to understand the generation as they come of age and enter into positions of social responsibility. The purpose of this paper is to examine the claims made about the Millennials, determine who are making these claims and why, and discuss the utility of such claims for teacher educators. This paper argues that teacher educators should be cautious about accepting and adopting popular discourses about the generation as a basis for the designing and developing millennial appropriate educational practices and pedagogy.

My Story in a Profession of Stories: Auto Ethnography - an Empowering Methodology for Educators

Abstract: This paper highlights a distinctive way to research and present issues within education using metaphor and the qualitative narrative methodology known as auto ethnography. Auto ethnographic writing links the personal to the cultural and is recognised as a methodology that combines the method with the writing of the text, which in turn explicates the personal story, or journey of the writer, within the culture in which the investigation, or experience, takes place. Although auto ethnography has not been common within education its value and the perception of its worth is changing. This paper uses auto ethnography to investigate and relate a personal encounter occurring within a particular educational and social context. It also presents a framework for perceiving the rise in consciousness, facilitated by the use of metaphor, as one moves through the 'Landscape of Action' and the 'Landscape of Consciousness', to the 'Landscape of Transformation'.

Reflecting on Teaching Practices Using Digital Video Representation in Teacher Education

Abstract: This paper reports on the perceptions of teacher education student of the value of using digital tools to analyse video-based information on the practice of teachers in classrooms. This strategy was employed to address a dilemma in providing sufficient exposure to real examples of good classroom teaching to link theory with practice. The use of video of teachers in action could augment their practicum experience in schools but this required efficient and effective access to appropriate video material. For this purpose, the use of digital tools in a system called LessonLab was successfully implemented in an introductory unit focussed on learning theories at Edith Cowan University. Data collected using a survey of students and focus group discussion indicated that for almost all the students the experience was valued and the system operated effectively.

Establishing Professional Identity: Narrative As Curriculum For Pre-Service Teacher Education

Abstract: It is unclear to what extent Australian teachers over recent years have resisted the impact of globalisation, marketisation and commodification on education generally and their daily work in classrooms specifically. Do teachers still see education as a public good, of personal and democratic importance in its own right regardless of the socio-economic background of students, or is education a critical component of material gain and individual, competitive advancement? Have teachers confronted these issues in reference to their own professional identities, in developing a strong relationship with their own knowledges as the essence of their educative role with young people? This paper suggests that such matters are still being played out in Australia, although the apparent weakness of the relationship that teachers have with their personal professional knowledge has contributed to an increasing commodification of education, especially in regards the Year 12 certificate. It is proposed that reconstructing initial teacher education on the basis of systematic narrative inquiry might collectively refocus the practice of teacher educators and pre-service teachers so that a community indeed moral imperative to learning is established. The discussion outlines connections between professional identity and narrative research and questions of credible and authentic learning for teacher education.

Secondary Beginning Teacher's Preparedness to Teach Literacy and Numeracy: A Survey

Abstract: This paper reports the findings of an Australia-wide survey conducted as part of a national teacher education research project that explored the preparation of teachers to teach literacy and numeracy in Australian schools (Louden, Rohl, Gore, Greaves, McIntosh, Wright, Siemon and House, 2005) 1. The project included various phases of inquiry, beginning with a desk audit of teacher education program characteristics and an international literature review (Gore and Griffiths, 2002), that drew on literature published in English in the last few decades. The issues identified in the literature review guided the construction of a set of national focus groups that targeted early years, primary and secondary teachers and teacher educators. Data from the focus groups informed three nationally representative questionnaire surveys, the purpose of which was to determine the preparedness of new graduates to teach literacy and numeracy to a range of school students. A survey was designed for each of the following three groups: senior school staff, primary beginning teachers and secondary beginning teachers.

Turkish Pre-Service Teachers' Beliefs about the Importance of Teaching Chemistry.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to describe Turkish preservice chemistry teachers’ beliefs about the importance of teaching chemistry in high schools. For this purpose, 45 pre-service chemistry teachers were administered a questionnaire involving open-ended questions which asked what the importance of teaching chemistry is, and why we teach chemistry in high schools. Based on the written responses, 12 pre-service teachers were chosen to be interviewed to obtain more elaborated information about their beliefs. Data analysis revealed that most of the pre-service teachers expressed that chemistry should be taught in order to explain daily life events. However, a very small number of them believed that teaching chemistry was important in terms of developing generic skills like critical thinking, and of creating curiosity and interest. This study suggests that chemistry should be taught both in high schools and universities in a way which emphasizes the importance of developing scientific skills.

Digital Generation Pre-Service Teachers as Change Agents: a Paradox

Abstract: In this paper I examine the assumptions or 'cultural models' (Gee, 1992, p. 60) that 70 aspiring Digital Generation pre-service teachers in south-east Queensland have formed about themselves as future teachers. This paper is drawn from a larger study that focused on the cultural models and resulting discourses that these pre-service teachers expressed about the development of their future lives and careers. In this paper, I argue that these pre-service teachers possess conflicting cultural models about both themselves as teaching professionals and as social activists. While they profess to be educational and social change agents they also profess discourses of educational conservatism and social disengagement. This paper contributes to the ongoing debate about how faculties of teacher education can best prepare teaching professionals in and for the new millennium. It highlights the need to consider the impact of a new generation of teaching professionals in relation to the success or failure of any proposed educational reform.

Problem-Based Learning in Early Childhood and Primary Pre-Service Teacher Education: Identifying the Issues and Examining the Benefits.

Abstract: Problem Based Learning (PBL) has been used with increased frequency in Higher Education settings since first introduced by Barrows and Tamblyn during the 1980’s. Since this time PBL has been used in medical, engineering and education faculties to support pre-service students in the acquisition of skills and content knowledge relevant to their disciplines. This paper explores the perceptions early childhood and primary pre-service teachers held regarding their participation in a unit of study structured around the use of a PBL scenario. The paper examines the frustrations pre-service teachers experienced within the PBL scenario as well as the perceived benefits regarding their participation in the unit of study . Introduction Problem Based Learning (PBL) has been used with increased frequency in the Higher Education sector since first developed by Barrows and Tamblyn at McMaster University during the 1980’s (Major & Palmer, 2001). Initially used as a means of ensuring that medical students were able to apply knowledge and respond to ‘real-life’ situations rather than simply acquire course content, PBL has evolved over the intervening years into a popular learning approach (Edens, 2000, p. 55). PBL draws on constructivist and social constructivist principles of learning, advocating student centered engagement with course content and peer-to-peer interactions as central to the learning process. PBL is not discovery learning, case-based learning, inquiry learning or project-based learning. Rather PBL is learning that occurs through immersion in a specific problem that requires students to apply reasoning and research skills to its solution (Barrows & Tamblyn, 1980). A particular emphasis in PBL is on allowing learners to explore the theory-practice relationship so that they are able to apply theoretical knowledge to their particular professional contexts (Savin-Baden, 2000, pp. 5 – 6). In the past, PBL has been viewed as an appropriate pedagogical tool for preparing graduates across a range of professions including, nursing, medicine, engineering, and law. More recently, PBL has attracted attention in the teacher education literature. The approach has been considered an important means of exposing pre-service teachers to situations they are likely to face as professional educators whilst simultaneously employing a teaching and learning approach that encapsulates the central tenets of constructivist and social constructivist learning theory (Ahlfeldt, Mehta & Sellnow, 2005; Dean, 1999). Previous research into the use of PBL in teacher education programs has shown that the approach supports pre-service teachers to acquire theoretical concepts related to practice, as well as supporting the development of

Teachers' Stories of Change: Stress, Care and Economic Rationality.

Abstract: The impact of economic rationalism on teachers’ working lives has been documented extensively, particularly in the UK. This article provides a case study of its impact in the early 1990s in a small Australian state, Tasmania, to illustrate that although the particular institutional forms through which it is expressed may differ its impact is similar. We do this by focusing on teachers' stories of change that have stress as a major theme. Stress is partially explained by increased workloads, teachers teaching outside their specialist areas and a changing student population. However, the ideology of economic rationalism has heightened stress because of the perceived lack of administrative care. A major stressor is trying to maintain a professional ideology of caring while, concurrently, accommodating to economic rationality. The clash of ideologies leads teachers to reduce commitment by leaving teaching, moving to part-time employment, withdrawing into classroom teaching and/or rationalising their workload with, they perceive, a decrease in the quality of teaching.

Stopping the Leak: Retaining Beginning Teachers

Abstract: The need for teacher retention has prompted numerous American states to provide programs for training mentors. The goal of mentor training is to offer a support mechanism that will retain novice teachers and assist them in developing their teaching skills. Such a program is the Texas Beginning Educator Support System (TxBESS) which has supported over 10,000 beginning teachers since its implementation in 1999 (State Board for Educator certification, 2004). A group of TxBESS supported interns was surveyed and the data suggest that both retention rates and teacher satisfaction were. high. The interns reported satisfaction particularly with regard to the effectiveness of the mentors. Stopping the Leak: Retaining Beginning Teachers Support in the induction phase of novice teachers is crucial to teacher retention. Recruiting individuals to enter teaching is certainly important, but stopping the leakage of teachers leaving the profession is equally essential. According to Ingersoll (2001), at the beginning of the 1993-1994 school year, about 192,500 teachers entered the profession, but by the following school year, about 213,000 (equivalent to 110% of those just hired) had left. Mentoring provides a bridge from theory to practical application in the classroom. Guidance and support by mentors can increase the novices’ satisfaction and competence in teaching resulting in increased retention. A report from the National Center for Educational Statistics reveals that programs offering support and assistance to novice teachers can positively affect teachers remaining in the classroom (U.S. Department of Education, 1997). Teacher preparation programs need to examine the training necessary for effective mentoring. Mentors must receive specific information regarding mentoring skills and knowledge and how to use an accountability system to encourage reflection and provide feedback to interns. Alternative Routes to Training Teachers The shortage of teachers has prompted numerous U.S. states to develop alternative routes to teaching licensure that require support for beginning teachers. New Jersey and Texas were forerunners in pursuing fast-track teacher preparation programs. Today, close to one-third of all new teachers certified annually receive their teaching training from these programs. This accelerated route is offered in 45 states and the District of Columbia (Mikulecky, Shkodriani & Wilner, 2004). Content areas with the most pressing need for certified teachers are secondary mathematics, science and foreign languages, as well as special education, bilingual education and English as a second language (Texas A&M University 2005). The majority of alternative preparation programs do not require the Australian Journal of Teacher Education May 2007 14 traditional student-teaching component; therefore a support system is critical in the first couple of years. Induction programs with mentoring assistance have contributed to the educational system in several ways. They have improved retention, increased positive attitudes toward teaching, applied pedagogical constructs, improved the performance of students and attracted much needed minority teachers (Huling-Austin, 1992). In Texas, 9% of all teachers are minorities and 41% of those who prepare through alternative routes come from minority groups. In New Jersey, 9% of all teachers are from minorities and 20% of alternatively certified teachers belong to this under-represented group. In the Troops to Teacher program, 30% of participants come from minority cultures and receive training in non-traditional teacher preparation programs (Mikulecky, Shkodriani & Wilner, 2004). In North Carolina there are several alternative routes to teaching for qualified individuals with college degrees outside the field of education who want to become teachers. The use of alternate licensing policies varies by local school system. Since 1986, North Carolina has been a leader in training mentors and supporting novice teachers. North Carolina Public Schools System has devised a Mentor/Support Team Training Program which received national and international attention. The State Department of Education provides ongoing resources for mentors and their charges (North Carolina Mentor Program, 2006). Following North Carolina’s lead, Texas in 1989 experimented with mentoring for beginning teachers as a strategy to encourage and counsel teachers through their first years in the profession. In 1990, when the state created its alternative teacher certification programs, mentoring was included as a requirement for all alternatively certified teachers; and in 1991, the requirement was mandated for all teachers during their induction year. However, unlike North Carolina, funds were not provided. In 1999, the Texas State Board for Educator Certification Education (SBEC) was awarded funding from the U.S. Department of Education to pilot a support system entitled the Texas Beginning Educator Support System (TxBESS). The state agency received a $12 million grant to develop and implement a support and assessment system for beginning teachers (Alliance for Excellent Education, 2002). A Systematic Mentor Program TxBESS was intended to reduce teacher attrition during the first critical years. The program was implemented in collaboration with Texas A&M University to provide systematic support for beginning teachers. TxBESS was developed around a standard-based system in which performance standards and a formative and reflective assessment served to support coaching and mentoring relationships. The assumption was that beginning teachers who had TxBESS support would attain greater professional expertise more quickly than unsupported teachers, leading in turn to higher academic achievement among students. SBEC, Texas A&M University and the Texas Workforce Commission in cooperation with the state’s twenty regional education service centres established a three-year pilot program to allow for development and evaluation of the TxBESS project (SBEC, 2004). Since the spring of 2000, over 7,000 beginning teachers have been assisted through this support system. TxBESS was found to be associated with improved retention rates among beginning teachers, stronger retention rates for high school teachers and increased retention of minority teachers. In addition, TxBESS mentor teachers reported that serving as mentors positively affected their professional growth. Participating principals indicated that the support that teachers received from TxBESS trained mentors resulted in improved classroom performance. (Dana Center Evaluation Report, 2003). Prior to their mentoring assignments, the mentors attended a four-day training session They explored interpersonal skills, communication strategies and understanding and Australian Journal of Teacher Education May 2007 15 acceptance of diverse personality temperaments as described by The Myers-Briggs Temperament Indicator (MBTI). (Wikipedia, 2005). The program helped mentors to acquire positive interpersonal skills and accept differences as well as skills to make consistent judgments based on evidence. They were instructed to examine teacher artifacts, watch video clips of teacher performances and compare them to the developmental continuum in the TxBESS framework. They learned to administer the TxBESS Activity Profile (TAP), a formative evaluation process incorporating frequent observation and conferencing. The TAP includes a pre-observation conference, an observation and a post-observation conference and provides information based on objective data from which the interns can plan to improve their teaching (Texas State Board for Educator Certification, 2005). The training was implemented in the Educational Service Centers (ESC) of Texas by state certified trainers. The Region IV Education Service Center is the largest of the twenty state sponsored educational centers in Texas. In 1990, the Center developed an alternative route to teaching in response to teacher shortages. Region IV ESC incorporates TxBESS practices in the training of mentors assigned to its teachers. The interns are provided with constructive feedback from a trained support team, that includes school administrators, mentors and supervisors. In addition, Region IV has begun an on-line mentor training program to extend services to 54 school districts within its service area and beyond. In addition to its regular alternative program, the Region IV Education Service Center (ESC) was awarded a Transition to Teaching (T3) grant. In 2003, the federal congress appropriated $41.65 million for this program to enable mid-career persons and recent college graduates to pursue alternative routes to the teaching profession (State of California Commission, 2005). The T3 program in Region IV provided the opportunity for 90 degreed professionals to become certified teachers through its fast track program based in Houston. The program included an association with the Texas A&M University that assisted in recruiting recent college graduates. Candidates had to meet strict application requirements including at least a 2.75 GPA in their major area of study. The program was designed for candidates in bilingual education, elementary education, special education, mathematics, science and foreign languages. The curriculum was designed to provide the equivalent of 15 semester hours of pre-service face-to-face and on-line courses/modules. The candidates continued extensive training. They were reimbursed for the pre-assignment training as well as for all preparation fees during the second year of the grant. Prospective candidates were recruited from two pools of candidates; recent college graduates and mid-career professionals. Region IV recruiters targeted recent college graduates from Texas A&M at College Station who met specific standards and expressed an interest during their last year of university work. Mid-career professionals with work experience in the

Students' Observations and Perceptions of Teacher "Performances" in the Classroom

Abstract: This paper documents students' observations and perceptions of their respective teachers' "performance" within the context of four year nine English classrooms. Drawing upon student interview data – and signalling researcher observations on occasion – it identifies key themes pertaining to the performances of the teachers. Specifically, it addresses the students' perceptions of the qualities or characteristics of their teachers, and the sets of practices employed by the teachers; and the students' views of the types of learning activities with which – and the classroom contexts within which – they were expected to engage. The paper identifies those teacher performances deemed by students to be "effective" and "ineffective" and the constitution of these performances, and draws conclusions as to what we, as educators, might learn from the students with regards to effective teach-er/ing practice. Finally, it is noted that while this paper draws specifically upon student observations and perceptions of English teachers' performances, these offer valuable insights for all teachers – teachers of all subjects and across all sectors of education.

Teachers Professional Knowledge and the Teaching of Reading in the Early Years

Abstract: What are the sources of teachers' professional knowledge for the teaching of reading? This paper reports findings from a study that investigated the role of teachers in the current Research-Policy-Praxis Nexus (RPPN). This was achieved by a specific focus upon constructions of reading in the early years in Victoria, Australia. All of the teacher participants either implemented or coordinated the Victorian Early Years Literacy Program (EYLP) in the primary school setting. These teachers were interviewed in order to hear their views on reading development and reading pedagogy and to identify the sources of this professional knowledge. The findings from this study are important for all teachers and teacher educators as they have implications for teaching practise, teacher education and teacher professional development programs.

Curriculum Integration: A trial

Abstract: Curriculum integration and working in teams are two key characteristics of middle schooling in Australia today. As part of a new primary/middle teacher education program an interdisciplinary team of academics has developed a course that aims to teach pre service teachers how to plan for and teach an integrated curriculum unit in an authentic context: their 6 week school placement. This paper will describe the first cycle of an action research project detailing the issues for the third year pre service teachers and for the staff involved in teaching the course as they come to grips with new ways of working. This is an action research project and the data includes course materials, staff notes and journals and student assignments. A number of key issues have emerged from this trial including pre services teachers' knowledge of how curriculum is constructed at this stage of their career and the difficulties of modeling this approach.

Repositioning Research As Writing to Improve Student Learning

Abstract: In recent years teacher education has used the process and practices of research to improve pre-service teachers' pedagogical practices. Pre-service teachers, however, generally prefer to understand the practices of teaching rather than research. This paper considers the writing process rather than the research process as central to the construction of pre-service teachers' subjectivities. It explores the responses of twenty-six Tasmanian Secondary English postgraduate pre-service teachers in 2004 and 2005, drawing on data from research writing projects, surveys and interviews. These responses indicated that when writing is positioned central to the research process it can change pre-service teachers' construction of research and in turn improve pedagogical practice and most importantly student learning.

Many Treasure Soup: A School-Based Project for Pre-Service Teacher Educators

Abstract: This paper narrates the development of a project developed by four researchers with differing approaches to qualitative research. The aim of the study was to examine the value of a school-based approach to pedagogy and curriculum subjects for pre-service teachers. What emerged from our collaboration was the accommodation of significant differences about what constituted ‘evidence.’ The article begins with an account of the project itself, followed by a number of research narratives. The researchers draw upon diverse traditions in qualitative research fields that include program evaluation, empirical research and narrative inquiry. Our study embraced Lather’s (2006) notion of paradigm proliferation in order to elicit more interesting and useful ways of knowing. Our study reveals the importance of school-university partnerships in improving the quality of teacher educationally.

Defining and Interpreting Professional Knowledge in an Age of Performativity: a Scottish Case-Study

Abstract: This paper will argue that by considering in detail the Scottish Standard for Initial Teacher Education [SITE] (Quality Assurance Agency [QAA], 2000), the foundation document of the teaching profession in Scotland, a model exists that synthesises the positions of those involved in education who support a “technical-rational” position and others who support a “values” discourse. The paper will consider how the authors of SITE were affected by the contextual factors of policy and epistemology. Literary methods of reading will be used to show that SITE defines professional knowledge as being dynamic, intellectual, personal, developmental, research-informed and achieved in synthesis and it will be argued that the success of this definition lies in the breadth of these categories rather than in the enumeration of unwieldy lists of competences

Initial Preparation of Secondary Teachers: Implications for Australia

Abstract: Observation of secondary art teacher education in the United Kingdom and Australia has revealed a range of differences, including a greater role for schools in initial teacher education (ITE) in UK. The literature reporting on research into preparation of teachers in UK indicates a general satisfaction among students regarding their experiences in schools. However some issues of concern arise which need to be considered if there is a move towards greater involvement of schools in ITE in Australia.

Professional Knowledge in Initial Teacher Education (ITE): A Preliminary Review of Hispanic Literature

Abstract: The global dominance of English as the principal language of international interchange in the teacher education field has, perhaps, diverted English-speaking scholars from the task of reviewing discourses in non-English languages. Taking as its focus the issue of professional knowledge in ITE, the present article considers scholarship predominantly of Spanish origin - to a lesser extent Portuguese and Latin American also - in an effort to begin to form an understanding of both historical antecedents and more recent approaches to professional knowledge in a Hispanic context. While the remit of the present article is one of introducing the work and ideas of significant scholars, it ends in pointing towards the need for further research in seeking to identify more fully what might be distinctive about the Hispanic contribution to a global discussion in the face of new 21 st -century realities in teacher

Prospective Teachers of Secondary School Learners: Learning to Teach - Teaching to Learn?

Abstract: Prospective teachers in their third year of a Bachelor of Education degree in secondary teacher education use a journal to respond to a range of questions about their experiences as learners prior to, during and after their first practicum. These stories are used as a source of data to analyze how 14 prospective secondary teachers understand the interaction between university–based and school-based studies; the points of conjunction and disjunction that they experience. The paper shows that during the first teaching practicum their ideas about learners and pedagogy are challenged and argues that more can be done in both the university and school to make ‘learning to teach’ a more connected experience for prospective teachers. This will require greater collaboration in a number of areas, along with the removal of structural barriers such as time and money.

Voices Echoing the Past: "I Decided to Do Teaching Because of the Teacher That I Had." Thirteen Female Secondary Entry-Level Teachers Candidates Teaching Not Only What but Also How They Were Taught.

Abstract: This paper reports on a study that sought to uncover and explore the beliefs female secondary pre-service teachers held about teaching and being the teacher as they entered into their teacher education programs. The results indicated that for the participating teacher candidates it was their prior teachers in their intended subject who most informed how they saw themselves in the role as the teacher. Specifically, those secondary teachers who sought critical thinking in them as students impacted upon this teacher-role identity the most. Implications highlight the lack of research on females in secondary education and the importance in-service teachers play in shaping those who may or may not become the teachers of tomorrow.

A Cross-Cultural Teacher Training Program for Singaporean Muslim Students

Abstract: Drawing upon evaluations of a teacher-training program for Muslim participants presented by Edith Cowan University staff in Singapore, this case study provides readers with insights into program design and management. It reports on lecturer and student attitudes as revealed in evaluations of the Singapore short course. In drawing the conclusion that attention must be given to cultural matters such as religious values and obligations and issues of language and assessment, the article asks the reader to rethink the universality of prevailing notions about internationalisation, particularly those relating to the necessary redesign of the curriculum. It ends with the suggestion that the by-product in terms of new knowledge and mutual understanding of such cross-cultural experiences for both teachers and learners may provide a valuable outcome of the internationalised curriculum. The presentation of special-purpose short courses for international participants is increasingly becoming a feature of tertiary teacher training programs and this article describes the reaction of both lecturers and students to one such program, conducted by Edith Cowan University education staff in Singapore for Muslim students. Therefore, readers will find in the report insights into tertiary cross-cultural education in general and into relationships with special cultural groups in particular. Background to the Study In July 2003 Edith Cowan University (ECU) commenced teaching a Diploma of General Education course, through the Asian Educational Consortium Education Group (AEC), to teachers employed in the Singapore Muslim religious schools (Madrasahs). The course consisted of 16 units, 15 of which were based on undergraduate units taught at ECU and one Islamic Educational Philosophy unit, taught by a locally appointed lecturer in consultation with the ECU course coordinator. The diploma was awarded by the AEC, with ECU responsible for teaching 15 units and quality assuring the entire course. The quality assurance process included moderation of assignment marking and the ECU unit coordinator setting and marking the examinations. Local tutors were also encouraged to attend the classes taught by ECU lecturers. During the period in which this research was undertaken two groups of 25 students were enrolled in the course. Subsequent to the collection of data, in July 2005 a third cohort enrolled in the course. Australian Journal of Teacher Education August 2007 15 The course was delivered in Singapore; students studying two units per trimester. ECU lecturers taught 15 hours over Saturdays, Sundays and Monday evenings, with students attending classes over two consecutive weekends. The intensive teaching periods were followed by three hour tutorials, conducted by local tutors appointed by the AEC, over a 5 week period. Approximately two weeks after the final tutorial, students sat for the unit examination. ECU lecturers were responsible for developing unit materials, teaching the 15 hours as previously described, liaising with the local tutor, quality assuring the marking of the local tutor, and setting and marking the examination. At the end of the calendar year the course was formally reviewed by the ECU course coordinator, who was a senior School of Education academic. The review included a course evaluation questionnaire comprising 19 items (each with a 5 point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree) informal interviews with students and a review of the individual unit teaching evaluation questionnaires completed by students. Copies of the review report were provided to the AEC, the Islamic Religious Council of Singapore (MUIS), ECU School of Education School Executive, the Faculty Associate Dean International and Commercial, and members of the ECU teaching team. Prior to the description of the course participants and data collection, pertinent issues emerging from the literature on international education are discussed. Issues arising from the literature Although literature in this very broad educational area is diverse and at this stage fragmentary, it is possible to discern certain issues for follow up in this paper. Those that are discussed here are the internationalised curriculum and the acknowledgement of aspects relating to cultural difference. The internationalised curriculum Two decades after the era of globalised education began universities are still struggling with the application of internationalisation to teaching programs and curriculum (Welch 2002; Liddicoat, 2003). It is even argued by Marginson (2002) that many international programs are inappropriate for overseas students because most courses remain largely monocultural. This is despite the fact that Australian universities have been active in translating the internationalisation concept into policy statements for the guidance of staff (Marginson, 2000). One recommendation in a recent policy statement about global education and internationalisation, presented in 2005 to the ECU Academic Board, is a case in point (Quin, 2005). All Operational Plans at Faculty and School level should be aligned and identify their strategic directions for internationalisation, indicating clear objectives and outcomes for the planning period with reference to the curriculum, recruitment and staff/student mobility. Giving weight to the view that this issue has not yet been adequately addressed in Australia generally is Bell’s (2004) interview study of 20 staff on one Australian urban university, where half the group was opposed to curriculum internationalisation. In stating this position, staff gave a variety of reasons, namely: Australian Journal of Teacher Education August 2007 16 • an Australian not an international degree is desired by the students; • theory and facts of the relevant discipline are considered by lecturers as incontestable; • integrity of the discipline could be harmed; • different ethnic groups represented in any one course group may not value each other’s culture; and • science based subjects are particularly vulnerable to suggestions of flexibility because of the particular nature of the research. Studies reporting on how teaching programs could be adapted to suit international student bodies are sparse and limited to certain fields such as business and education. Lamenting that the internationalisation of the Monash university undergraduate business degree was in its infancy in 2003, Edwards, Grosling, Petrovic-Lazarovic and O’Neill proposed a typology of stages, whereby students would be progressively challenged to reconsider their views before moving onto cross-cultural interaction and finally to refining their expertise by working in an environment outside of their comfort zone. Such a view, though valuable as a basis for undergraduate programs, presupposes a more prolonged period of training than is available for short programs such as is the subject of this paper. More applicable here may be the type of experience gained by staff members from the presentation of an Educational Management Masters’ program to Chinese educational leaders in Zhejiang province. Deriving understanding from three years’ work in China, a paper by Leggett, Bowering, Campbell-Evans and Harvey (2005) recommended the addition of an ‘outside-in’ approach, whereby overseas teaching provided authentic opportunities for adding additional interest to the curriculum by means of reciprocal effects made possible by exchanging examples and views within the two programs. One instance of this noticed quite early in the program is that these Chinese students expressed a strong preference for starting with the big picture ie the driving forces in the society and area before moving onto concrete examples. This has been found to have great importance for both the introduction of new topics as well as the consideration of actual examples and scenarios in both programs. With the imperative of the internationalisation of curriculum for cross-cultural groupings in mind, it is important to examine other fields of research, which could provide input for the paper. The most fruitful area for comment on a wide range of subjects including curriculum, language use and “globalisation” training for lecturers is that from overseas specialist courses taught specifically to second language speakers within both English speaking and nonEnglish speaking communities. This is the source of the largest body of research to date. Again in the area of curriculum positive example is difficult to locate. However, if a slightly wider interpretation of ‘course’ is adopted, the abundant literature from overseas aid and development programs has set the scene for the criticisms of western ideas and practices, on which many educational programs themselves are based. Adrian Holliday (2001), writing in the tradition of such critics of overseas educational projects in English as Phillipson and Pennycook, spoke of the need for cultural continuity in curriculum. In working towards change in another culture, his suggestion is that we have to find “an alternative way of looking at the people we work with in innovation scenarios – in their own terms rather than ours.” Earlier, Coleman (1996) took up this theme to describe how English language programs in eight leading countries, where English is taught as a foreign language, illustrate how ‘cultural continuity’ in each case creates its own individual style in Australian Journal of Teacher Education August 2007 17 teaching, despite strong efforts to counter this by western practitioners. Along the same lines, a body of research from different Asian countries now exists for decrying the spread of student centred English language learning as being unsuitable for educational transplant (Burnaby & Sun, 1989; Li, 2001). More recently Carrier (2003), in critiquing teacher training for second language speakers, gave his support to internationalisation of the curriculum. It was