Showing papers in "Bothalia in 2017"
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors identified conflict-generating species, evaluated the causes and driving forces of these conflicts and assessed how the conflicts have affected management and highlighted the challenges and trade-offs of managing invasive species in South Africa.
Abstract: Background: This paper reviewed the benefits and negative impacts of alien species that are currently listed in the Alien and Invasive Species Regulations of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (Act no 10 of 2004) and certain alien species that are not yet listed in the regulations for which conflicts of interest complicate management. Objectives: Specifically, it identified conflict-generating species, evaluated the causes and driving forces of these conflicts and assessed how the conflicts have affected management. Method: A simple scoring system was used to classify the alien species according to their relative degree of benefits and negative impacts. Conflict-generating species were then identified and further evaluated using an integrated cognitive hierarchy theory and risk perception framework to identify the value systems (intrinsic and economic) and risk perceptions associated with each conflict. Results: A total of 552 alien species were assessed. Most of the species were classified as inconsequential (55%) or destructive (29%). Beneficial (10%) and conflict-generating (6%) species made a minor contribution. The majority (46%) of the conflict cases were associated with more than one value system or both values and risk perception. The other conflicts cases were based on intrinsic (40%) and utilitarian (14%) value systems. Conclusions: Conflicts based on value and risk perceptions are inherently difficult to resolve because authorities need to balance the needs of different stakeholders while meeting the mandate of conserving the environment, ecosystem services and human well-being. This paper uses the identified conflict-generating species to highlight the challenges and trade-offs of managing invasive species in South Africa.
109 citations
TL;DR: South Africa has a growing number of invasive alien plant species across an increasing area, and SAPIA is a valuable tool for monitoring alien plant status and should be developed further so that invasions can be accurately tracked over time.
Abstract: Background : Data on alien species status and occurrence are essential variables for the monitoring and reporting of biological invasions. The Southern African Plant Invaders Atlas (SAPIA) Project has, over the past 23 years, atlassed alien plants growing outside of cultivation. Objectives : To document changes in the alien plant taxa recorded in SAPIA, assess trends in invasive distributions and explore effects of management and regulations. Method : The numbers of alien plant taxa recorded were compared between May 2006 and May 2016, and changes in the extent of invasions at a quarter-degree squares (qds) scale were compared between 2000 and 2016. The effectiveness of regulations and interventions was assessed in terms of the relative change in the extent of invasions. Results : As of May 2016, SAPIA had records for 773 alien plant taxa, an increase of 172 since 2006. Between 2000 and 2016, the number of qds occupied by alien plants increased by ~50%, due both to ongoing sampling and to spread. Successful classical biological control programmes have reduced the rate of spread of some taxa and in a few cases have led to range contractions. However, other interventions had no detectable effect at a qds scale. Conclusions : South Africa has a growing number of invasive alien plant species across an increasing area. More taxa should be listed under national regulations, but ultimately more needs to be done to ensure that management is strategic and effective. SAPIA is a valuable tool for monitoring alien plant status and should be developed further so that invasions can be accurately tracked over time.
82 citations
TL;DR: A review of the biological control programme on waterweeds in South Africa shows significant reductions in the extent of invasions, and a return on biodiversity and socio-economic benefits through the use of this method.
Abstract: Background : Aquatic ecosystems in South Africa are prone to invasion by several invasive alien aquatic weeds, most notably, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms-Laub. (Pontederiaceae) (water hyacinth); Pistia stratiotes L. (Araceae) (water lettuce); Salvinia molesta D.S. Mitch. (Salviniaceae) (salvinia); Myriophyllum aquaticum (Vell. Conc.) Verd. (parrot’s feather); and Azolla filiculoides Lam. (Azollaceae) (red water fern). Objective : We review the biological control programme on waterweeds in South Africa. Results : Our review shows significant reductions in the extent of invasions, and a return on biodiversity and socio-economic benefits through the use of this method. These studies provide justification for the control of widespread and emerging freshwater invasive alien aquatic weeds in South Africa. Conclusions : The long-term management of alien aquatic vegetation relies on the correct implementation of biological control for those species already in the country and the prevention of other species entering South Africa.
64 citations
TL;DR: It is suggested that southern Africa is becoming more vulnerable to amphibian invasions because of an increase in trade, agricultural and domestic impoundments as well as global climate change.
Abstract: Background : Globally, invasive amphibians are known for their environmental and social impacts that range from poisoning of local fauna and human populations to direct predation on other amphibians. Although several countries on most continents have had multiple introductions of many species, southern Africa appears to have escaped allochthonous introductions. Instead, it has a small number of domestic exotic species that have rapidly expanded their ranges and established invasive populations within South Africa. Objectives & methods : We used the literature to provide a historical overview of dispersal by some of the world’s major invasive amphibians, give examples of species that are commonly moved as stowaways and discuss historical and current amphibian trade in the region. In addition, we give an overview of new South African legislation and how this is applied to amphibian invasions, as well as providing updates on the introduced populations of three domestic exotics: Hyperolius marmoratus, Sclerophrys gutturalis and Xenopus laevis . Results : We show that frogs are mainly moved around southern Africa through ‘jump’ dispersal, although there are a number of records of ‘cultivation’, ‘leading-edge’ and ‘extreme long-distance’ dispersal types. Important pathways include trade in fruit and vegetables, horticultural products and shipping containers. Conclusion : We suggest that southern Africa is becoming more vulnerable to amphibian invasions because of an increase in trade, agricultural and domestic impoundments as well as global climate change. Increasing propagule pressure suggests that preventing new introductions will become a key challenge for the future. Currently, trade in amphibians in the region is practically non-existent, suggesting potential for best practice to prevent importation of species with high invasion potential and to stop the spread of disease.
63 citations
TL;DR: Biological control of IAPs has contributed substantially to their management in South Africa, and continues to do so, and there is still a need to improve implementation and to better integrate biological control with other control methods.
Abstract: Background : Biological control of invasive alien plants (IAPs) using introduced natural enemies contributes significantly to sustained, cost-effective management of natural resources in South Africa. The status of, and prospects for, biological control is therefore integral to National Status Reports (NSRs) on Biological Invasions, the first of which is due in 2017. Objectives : Our aim was to evaluate the status of, and prospects for, biological control of IAPs in South Africa. We discuss expansion of biological control and suggest indicators to be used in the upcoming NSR to assess sufficient growth. Method : We used published literature, unpublished work and personal communication to assess the status of biological control of IAPs. We propose indicators based on the targets for biological control that were proposed in the 2014 ‘National Strategy for dealing with biological invasions in South Africa’. To prioritise targets for future efforts, we used published lists of damaging IAPs and assessed the prospects for their biological control. Recommendations for using biological control as a management tool were made after discussion among the authors and with colleagues. Results : Significant control of several Cactaceae, Australian Acacia species and floating aquatic plants, and many other IAPs has been achieved in South Africa since 1913. Recently, biological control has benefited from improved international collaboration, a streamlined application process for the release of new biological control agents (resulting in the approval of 19 agents against 13 IAP species since 2013), and increased funding and capacity. There is still a need to improve implementation and to better integrate biological control with other control methods. In order to maximise benefits from biological control, increased investment is required, particularly in implementation and post-release evaluation, and in targeting new IAPs. Proposed targets for growth between 2017 and 2020 include an increase in financial investment in research by 29%, implementation by 28% and mass-rearing by 68%. Research capacity should increase by 29%, implementation capacity by 63% and mass-rearing capacity by 61%. New research projects should be initiated on 12 new IAP targets, while post-release monitoring efforts should be expanded to another 31 IAPs. Conclusion : Biological control of IAPs has contributed substantially to their management in South Africa, and continues to do so. Further investment in targeted aspects of IAP biological control will increase this contribution.
54 citations
TL;DR: The intra-regional spread of alien species in Africa represents an important and possibly increasing threat to biosecurity and a framework is proposed that details how African countries could cooperate and develop a coordinated response to alien species introductions.
Abstract: Background : Alien organisms are not only introduced from one biogeographical region to another but also spread within regions. As South Africa shares land borders with six countries, multiple opportunities exist for the transfer of alien species between South Africa and other African countries; however, the direction and importance of intra-regional spread is unclear. Objectives : The aim of this study was to gain a greater understanding of the introduction of alien species into Africa and the spread of species between South Africa and other African countries. Method : We developed scenarios that describe the routes by which alien species are introduced to and spread within Africa and present case studies for each. Using data from literature sources and databases, the relative importance of each scenario for alien birds and insect pests of eucalypts was determined, and the direction and importance of intra-regional spread was assessed. Results : Alien species from many taxonomic groups have, through various routes, been introduced to and spread within Africa. For birds and eucalypt insect pests, the number of species spreading in the region has recently increased, with South Africa being a major recipient of birds (14 species received and 5 donated) and a major donor of eucalypt insect pests (1 species received and 10 donated). For both groups, many introduced species have not yet spread in the region. Conclusion : The intra-regional spread of alien species in Africa represents an important and possibly increasing threat to biosecurity. To address this threat, we propose a framework that details how African countries could cooperate and develop a coordinated response to alien species introductions.
38 citations
TL;DR: Although introductions of alien grasses have declined in recent decades, South Africa has a potentially large invasion debt and highlights the need for continued monitoring and much greater investment in alien grass management, research and legislation.
Abstract: Background : In many countries around the world, the most damaging invasive plant species are grasses. However, the status of grass invasions in South Africa has not been documented recently. Objectives : To update Sue Milton’s 2004 review of grasses as invasive alien plants in South Africa, provide the first detailed species level inventory of alien grasses in South Africa and assess the invasion dynamics and management of the group. Method : We compiled the most comprehensive inventory of alien grasses in South Africa to date using recorded occurrences of alien grasses in the country from various literature and database sources. Using historical literature, we reviewed past efforts to introduce alien grasses into South Africa. We sourced information on the origins, uses, distributions and minimum residence times to investigate pathways and patterns of spatial extent. We identified alien grasses in South Africa that are having environmental and economic impacts and determined whether management options have been identified, and legislation created, for these species. Results : There are at least 256 alien grass species in the country, 37 of which have become invasive. Alien grass species richness increased most dramatically from the late 1800s to about 1940. Alien grass species that are not naturalised or invasive have much shorter residence times than those that have naturalised or become invasive. Most grasses were probably introduced for forage purposes, and a large number of alien grass species were trialled at pasture research stations. A large number of alien grass species in South Africa are of Eurasian origin, although more recent introductions include species from elsewhere in Africa and from Australasia. Alien grasses are most prevalent in the south-west of the country, and the Fynbos Biome has the most alien grasses and the most widespread species. We identified 11 species that have recorded environmental and economic impacts in the country. Few alien grasses have prescribed or researched management techniques. Moreover, current legislation neither adequately covers invasive species nor reflects the impacts and geographical extent of these species. Conclusion : South Africa has few invasive grass species, but there is much uncertainty regarding the identity, numbers of species, distributions, abundances and impacts of alien grasses. Although introductions of alien grasses have declined in recent decades, South Africa has a potentially large invasion debt. This highlights the need for continued monitoring and much greater investment in alien grass management, research and legislation.
36 citations
TL;DR: FISK was demonstrated to be a useful risk assessment tool to evaluate the invasion risk posed by species proposed for use in aquaculture and was identified as the threshold to delineate between species that could become invasive in South Africa and those that are unlikely to become invasive.
Abstract: Background : South Africa, as a signatory of the Convention on Biological Diversity, has an obligation to identify, prioritise and manage invasive species and their introduction pathways. However, this requires knowledge of the introduction pathways, factors influencing establishment success, invasive potential, current distributions and ecological impacts. Objectives : To evaluate the Fish Invasiveness Screening Kit (FISK) to predict the invasion risk posed by fish species proposed for introduction into South Africa. Method : FISK assessments were compiled for species whose invasion status in South Africa was known. A Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis was conducted to calibrate the FISK for South Africa. The calibrated FISK was used to evaluate the risk that three species recently proposed for importation for aquaculture could become invasive in South Africa. Results : A FISK score of 14 was identified as the threshold to delineate between species that could become invasive in South Africa and those that are unlikely to become invasive. Of the three species evaluated, Silurus glanis had a high risk of becoming invasive in South Africa, Lates calcarifer was likely to be invasive and Oncorhynchus tshawytscha was unlikely to be invasive in South Africa. Conclusion : FISK was demonstrated to be a useful risk assessment tool to evaluate the invasion risk posed by species proposed for use in aquaculture. For the large number of fish imported for the pet trade, a rapid screening assessment to flag potentially high risk species was recommended prior to a full FISK assessment for flagged species.
35 citations
TL;DR: It is essential that future invasions to the PEIs are minimised, that the islands’ management policies deal with all stages of the invasion process and that a better understanding of the risks and impacts of invasions is obtained.
Abstract: Background : The sub-Antarctic Prince Edward Islands (PEIs), South Africa’s southernmost territories have high conservation value. Despite their isolation, several alien species have established and become invasive on the PEIs. Objectives : Here we review the invasion ecology of the PEIs. Methods : We summarise what is known about the introduction of alien species, what influences their ability to establish and spread, and review their impacts. Results : Approximately 48 alien species are currently established on the PEIs, of which 26 are known to be invasive. Introduction pathways for the PEIs are fairly well understood – species have mainly been introduced with ship cargo and building material. Less is known about establishment, spread and impact of aliens. It has been estimated that less than 5% of the PEIs is covered by invasive plants, but invasive plants have attained circuminsular distributions on both PEIs. Studies on impact have primarily focussed on the effects of vertebrate invaders, of which the house mouse, which is restricted to Marion Island, probably has the greatest impact on the biodiversity of the islands. Because of the risk of alien introductions, strict biosecurity regulations govern activities at the PEIs. These are particularly aimed at stemming the introduction of alien species, and are likely to have reduced the rates of new introductions. In addition, some effort is currently being made to eradicate selected range-restricted species. However, only one species that had established and spread on the PEIs, the cat, has been successfully eradicated from the islands. Conclusion : Given the ongoing threat of introductions, and the impacts of invaders, it is essential that future invasions to the PEIs are minimised, that the islands’ management policies deal with all stages of the invasion process and that a better understanding of the risks and impacts of invasions is obtained.
33 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors assessed the history and status of national legislation pertaining to invasive freshwater fishes, and the practical implications of the legislation for managing different species with contrasting distributions, impacts and utilisation value.
Abstract: Background : South Africa hosts a large number of non-native freshwater fishes that were introduced for various industries. Many of these species are now listed under the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (NEM:BA) Alien and Invasive Species (A&IS) lists and regulations, though the practical options available to conservation agencies to effectively manage these fishes vary greatly among species and regions. Objectives & methods : We assessed the history and status of national legislation pertaining to invasive freshwater fishes, and the practical implications of the legislation for managing different species with contrasting distributions, impacts and utilisation value. Results : The smallmouth bass, despite being a potential conflict-generating species, is fairly straightforward to manage based on current legislation. Two species of trout, which remain absent from the NEM:BA A&IS lists because of ongoing consultation with stakeholders, continue to be managed in regions like the Western Cape province using existing provincial legislation. To maximise the limited capacity for management within conservation agencies, we proposed a decision-support tool that prioritises invasive fish populations that represent high environmental risk and low potential for conflict with stakeholders. Using three case studies, we demonstrated how the tool can be used to set management goals of ‘eradicate’, ‘manage against impacts and further spread’ and ‘continue to monitor population’ as the most pragmatic solutions given the state of an invasion, its socio-economic impact and the capacity of the responsible agency to act. Conclusion : By choosing a pragmatic management strategy, conservation agencies can maximise the effective deployment of limited resources, while minimising avoidable conflicts with stakeholders.
29 citations
TL;DR: This paper explores strategic management approaches for cactus invasions in South Africa, and discusses approaches for the management of cactus species, their introduction and spread pathways and spatial prioritisation of control efforts.
Abstract: Background : South Africa has a long history of managing biological invasions. The rapid increase in the scale and complexity of problems associated with invasions calls for new, more strategic management approaches. This paper explores strategic management approaches for cactus invasions in South Africa. Cacti (Cactaceae) have had a long history of socio-economic benefits, considerable negative environmental and socio-economic impacts, and a wide range of management interventions in South Africa. Objectives : To guide the future management of cactus invasions, a national strategic framework was developed by the South African Cactus Working Group. The overarching aim of this framework is to reduce the negative impacts of cacti to a point where their benefits significantly outweigh the losses. Method : Four strategic objectives were proposed: (1) all invasive and potentially invasive cactus species should be prevented from entering the country, (2) new incursions of cactus species must be rapidly detected and eradicated, (3) the impacts of invasive cacti must be reduced and contained and (4) socio-economically useful cacti (both invasive and non-invasive species) must be utilised sustainably to minimise the risk of further negative impacts. Results : There are currently 35 listed invasive cactus species in the country; 10 species are targeted for eradication and 12 are under partial or complete biological control. We discuss approaches for the management of cactus species, their introduction and spread pathways and spatial prioritisation of control efforts. Conclusion : A thorough understanding of context-specific invasion processes and stakeholder support is needed when implementing strategies for a group of invasive species.
TL;DR: This study identifies information gaps and research priorities at the country level with a view to informing monitoring and conservation efforts, such as alien plant removal and control programmes, and ensuring that endemic terrestrial animal diversity is maintained.
Abstract: Background : Increasing numbers of invasive alien plant (IAP) species are establishing around the globe and can have negative effects on resident animal species function and diversity. These impacts depend on a variety of factors, including the extent of invasion, the region and the taxonomic group affected. These context dependencies make extrapolations of IAP impacts on resident biota from region to region a substantial challenge. Objectives : Here, we synthesised data from studies that have examined the effects of IAPs on animal diversity in South Africa. Our focus is on ectothermic organisms (reptiles, amphibians and invertebrates). Method : We sourced relevant articles using keywords relating to (1) the effects of IAPs on species diversity (abundance, richness and composition), (2) the IAP and (3) the native ectotherm. We extracted the taxonomic and spatial coverage of IAPs and affected native species and assessed the extent of information given on potential mechanisms driving IAP impacts. Results : Across the 42 studies, IAPs had a decreasing or neutral effect on native animal abundance and richness and significantly changed species composition. This review highlighted the paucity of studies and the research deficits in taxonomic and geographic coverage and in the mechanisms underlying IAP impacts on ectotherms. Conclusion : By assessing the status of knowledge regarding the impacts of IAPs on resident animal species in South Africa, this study identifies information gaps and research priorities at the country level with a view to informing monitoring and conservation efforts, such as alien plant removal and control programmes, and ensuring that endemic terrestrial animal diversity is maintained.
TL;DR: In this article, the effectiveness of IAP management practices in a large fynbos protected area, the Garden Route National Park, South Africa, was assessed, and the quality of many treatments was inadequate, with work done to standard in only 23% of the assessed area.
Abstract: Background : Concern has been expressed about the effectiveness of invasive alien plant (IAP) control operations carried out by Working for Water (WfW). South African legislation now also requires reporting on the effectiveness of IAP management interventions. Objectives : We assessed the effectiveness of IAP management practices in a large fynbos protected area, the Garden Route National Park, South Africa. Methods: We undertook field surveys of pre-clearing IAP composition and the quality of treatments applied by WfW during 2012–2015 in 103 management units, covering 4280 ha. We furthermore assessed WfW data for evidence of change in IAP cover after successive treatments, and adherence to industry norms. Results : Despite the development of detailed management plans, implementation was poorly aligned with plans. The quality of many treatments was inadequate, with work done to standard in only 23% of the assessed area. Problems encountered included (1) a complete absence of treatment application despite the payment of contractors (33% of assessed area); (2) treatments not being comprehensive in that select areas (38%), IAP species (11%) or age classes (8%) were untreated; (3) wrong choice of treatment method (9%); and (4) treatments not applied to standard (7%). Accordingly, successive follow-up treatments largely did not reduce the cover of IAPs. Inaccurate (or lack of) infield estimation of IAP cover prior to contract generation resulted in erroneous estimation of effort required and expenditure disparate with WfW norms. Conclusions : We advocate rigorous, compulsory, infield assessment of IAP cover prior to contract allocation and assessment of the quality of treatments applied prior to contractors’ payment. This should improve the efficiency of control operations and enable tracking of both the state of invasions and effectiveness of management.
TL;DR: What alien species are present in SANParks, the species and parks that management has focused on, the implications of the NEM:BA Invasive Alien Species Regulations and the future developments in monitoring are provided.
Abstract: Objectives : A core objective in South African National Parks (SANParks) is biodiversity conservation and the maintenance of functional ecosystems, which is compromised by alien species invasions. The 2016 Alien and Invasive Species Regulations of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (NEM:BA) requires landowners to develop management plans for alien and invasive species, as well as report on the status and efficacy of control. Method : To compile the species list, we started with the 2011 SANParks alien species list. Name changes were updated and SANParks ecologists and park managers contacted to verify the species lists and add new records. Species reported by external experts were added in the same manner. The management programme costs and species controlled per park per year were extracted from SANParks’ Working for Water programme database. Results : SANParks has listed 869 alien and extra-limital species, including 752 plants and 117 animals, increasing from 781 alien species in 2011. About R 590 million has been spent by the Working for Water/Biodiversity Social Programmes since 2000/2001. Of the species recorded, 263 are listed by NEM:BA, including 12 Category 1a species, 184 Category 1b species, 28 Category 2 species and 39 Category 3 species. Conclusion : While large clearing programmes have been maintained since at least 1998, improving prioritisation is necessary. We provide a short synopsis of (1) what alien species are present in SANParks, (2) the species and parks that management has focused on, (3) the implications of the NEM:BA Invasive Alien Species Regulations and (4) future developments in monitoring.
TL;DR: South Africa is an excellent place to study invasions that can provide insights for understanding and managing invasions in other countries, according to this special issue of 19 papers in the journal Bothalia.
Abstract: South Africa has committed to producing a National Status Report on Biological Invasions by October 2017 and thereafter every three years. This will be the first status report at a national level specifically on biological invasions. As part of soliciting input, a workshop was held in May 2016 that led to this special issue of 19 papers in the journal Bothalia: African Biodiversity and Conservation . This editorial introduces the symposium, discusses the special issue and summarises how each contribution provides an estimate of ‘status’. Papers focus on key pathways, taxa, areas, and evaluations of interventions, specifically the movement of taxa between South Africa and neighbouring countries; the dispersal pathways of amphibians; a review of alien animals; a report on changes in the number and abundance of alien plants; in-depth reviews of the status of invasions for cacti, fishes, fungi and grasses; an assessment of the impact of widespread invasive plants on animals; reviews on invasions in municipalities, protected areas and subAntarctic Islands; assessments of the efficacy of biological control and other control programmes; and recommendations for how to deal with conflict species, to conduct scientific assessments and to improve risk assessments. The papers in this special issue confirm that South Africa is an excellent place to study invasions that can provide insights for understanding and managing invasions in other countries. Negative impacts seem to be largely precipitated by certain taxa (especially plants), whereas invasions by a number of other groups do not, yet, seem to have caused the widespread negative impacts felt in other countries. Although South Africa has effectively managed a few biological invasions (e.g. highly successful biological control of some invasive plants), the key challenge seems to be to establish and maintain a strong link between implementation, monitoring, reporting and planning.
TL;DR: A framework is presented as a first step towards measuring compliance and how the national status report can measure the level of compliance by Organs of State.
Abstract: Background : The South African National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (No. 10 of 2004) (NEM:BA) requires all Organs of State at all spheres of government to develop invasive species monitoring, control and eradication plans. Municipalities across South Africa are required to comply with the Alien and Invasive Species Regulations under NEM:BA but are faced with myriad challenges, making compliance difficult. Objective : This paper unpacks some of the challenges municipalities face and provides guidance on how to overcome these in order to achieve NEM:BA compliance. Through a strategic, municipal-wide approach involving different landowners, compliance can be achieved and many of the associated challenges can be overcome. For example, lack of awareness and capacity within municipal structures can be addressed through various platforms that have proven successful in some areas. Conclusions : Using the City of Cape Town as a case study, we highlight some of the notable successes in overcoming some of these challenges. For example, the City’s Invasive Species Strategy has resulted in municipal buy-in, departmental collaboration and a city-wide invasive plant tender, allowing for streamlined invasive plant control across the city. We present a framework as a first step towards measuring compliance and how the national status report can measure the level of compliance by Organs of State.
TL;DR: Almost all marine and most terrestrial alien species were accidentally introduced, whereas freshwater introductions were almost entirely intentional, and most species accumulation was fairly low until 1880, but accelerated sharply thereafter.
Abstract: Background : There is no comprehensive inventory and analysis of the composition, distribution, origin and rate of introduction of the alien fauna of South Africa. Objectives : To provide such an analysis to facilitate effective ecological management, and compile a comprehensive inventory of introduced animal species across major habitats. Methods : All available databases and references were used to compile the inventory, forming the basis of subsequent analyses. A graduated map was produced to identify concentrations of alien species. Results : Of the 571 alien animal species analysed, insects comprised the largest component (53%, 300 species), followed by molluscs (9%, 51 species), annelids (8%, 48 species), arachnids (7%, 41 species), vertebrates (7%, 41 species) and crustaceans (6%, 36 species). Vertebrate introductions (88%) were largely intentional, whereas 84% of invertebrate introductions were unintentional. Conclusions : Almost all marine and most terrestrial alien species were accidentally introduced, whereas freshwater introductions were almost entirely intentional. Some 13% had not spread significantly, 16% had spread significantly and 71% had become fully invasive. Vertebrate introductions virtually ceased after the 1950s, but rate of introduction of invertebrates remained linear. The overall rate of species accumulation was fairly low until 1880, but accelerated sharply thereafter. Most terrestrial alien species originated from Europe (28.6%) and Asia (25.0%) and the lowest proportion (6.1%) from Africa. Freshwater introductions largely originated from the Americas, with few from Africa. The most invaded areas were around Cape Town, (up to 162 introduced species/half-degree grid cell), followed by Gauteng and Durban
TL;DR: The results of this research offer the possibility of using the Bacillus subtilis as a growth promoter in tomato seedlings and in the formulation of bio-products.
Abstract: The capacity to solubilize phosphate and to produce indole compounds Indole Acetic Acid type, was evaluated in 15 strains isolated from castor bean lignocellulosic residues ( Ricinus communis). To determine the solubilizing activity of phosphates a qualitative test by using Pikovskaya culture medium was employed and for the evaluation of the production of indole compounds (IAA) a Salkowsky colorimetric analysis technique was applied. Among the microorganisms tested, the Bacillus pumilus GIBI 206 demonstrated capacity to solubilize phosphates and Bacillus subtilis GIBI 200 showed of capacity to solubilize phosphates and to produce Indoleacetic Acid (IAA). To determine the effect of the Bacillus subtilis strain on germination and growth promotion, tomato seeds ( Solanum lycopersicum ‘Santa Clara’) were inoculated; the inoculation of the seeds along with the microorganism revealed statistically significant differences, during the germination stage compared to the control treatment. Nevertheless, it revealed a positive influence on the development of tomato plants, originating a significant increase on the mass and length of its stem and root. The results of this research offer the possibility of using the Bacillus subtilis as a growth promoter in tomato seedlings and in the formulation of bio-products.
TL;DR: A range of approaches to pre-border risk assessment (RA) tool development have emerged, each relying on different assumptions about the relationships between traits and species impacts, and each requiring different levels and types of data as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Background : Harmful alien species impose a growing environmental, economic and human well-being burden around the globe. A promising way to reduce the arrival of new species that may become harmful is to utilise pre-border risk assessment (RA) tools that relate the traits of introduced species to whether those species have become established and harmful. These tools can be applied to species proposed for intentional introduction so that informed decisions can be made about whether each species poses an acceptable risk and should be allowed for import. Objectives : A range of approaches to RA tool development have emerged, each relying on different assumptions about the relationships between traits and species impacts, and each requiring different levels and types of data. We set out to compare the qualities of each approach and make recommendations for their application in South Africa, a high biodiversity developing country that already has many invasive species. Method : We reviewed five approaches to pre-border RA and assessed the benefits and drawbacks of each. We focused on how pre-border RA could be applied in South Africa. Results : Recent legislation presents a framework for RA to evaluate species introductions to South Africa, but we find that this framework assumes an approach to RA that is relatively slow and costly and that does not leverage recent advances in RA tool development. Conclusion : There is potential for proven RA approaches to be applied in South Africa that would be less costly and that could more rapidly assess the suite of species currently being introduced.
TL;DR: Effectively designed and managed assessments provide the platform for the ‘co-production of knowledge’ – an iterative and collaborative process involving scientists, stakeholders and policymakers that increases scientific impact in the society–policy domain.
Abstract: Background : The science–policy interface process – known as a ‘scientific assessment’ – has risen to prominence in the past few decades. Complex assessments are appropriate for issues which are both technically complicated, multifaceted and of high societal interest. There is increasing interest from the research community that studies biological invasions to undertake such an assessment. Objectives : Providing the relevant background and context, the article describes key principles and steps for designing, planning, resourcing and executing such a process, as well as providing evidence of high-impact assessments enhancing scientific careers. Method : Experience from international and national assessments, most recently the South African scientific assessment for the Shale Gas Development in the Central Karoo, was used to develop this guiding generic template for practitioners. Analyses of researcher publication performances were undertaken to determine the benefit of being involved in assessments. Results : The key success factors for assessments mostly relate to adherence to ‘process’ and ‘governance’ aspects, for which scientists are sometimes ill-equipped. As regards publication outputs, authors involved in assessment processes demonstrated higher H-indices than their environmental scientist peers. We have suggested causal explanations for this. Conclusion : Effectively designed and managed assessments provide the platform for the ‘co-production of knowledge’ – an iterative and collaborative process involving scientists, stakeholders and policymakers. This increases scientific impact in the society–policy domain. While scientists seem concerned that effort directed towards assessments comes at the detriment of scientific credibility and productivity, we have presented data that suggest the opposite.
TL;DR: The parasitic fauna of Cichlasoma bimaculatum of a tributary from the Amazon River system, northern Brazil was characterized by the presence of few species of parasites with high prevalence and abundance, specifically ectoparasites, and a low number of endoparAsites.
Abstract: This study investigated the parasitic fauna of Cichlasoma bimaculatum of a tributary from the Amazon River system, northern Brazil. The prevalence of infection was 94.6 % and, in total, 428,267 parasites, such as Ichthyophthirius multifiliis , Piscinoodinium pillulare (Protozoa), Gussevia arilla (Monogenoidea), Posthodiplostomum sp. (Digenea) and Procamallanus ( Spirocamallanus ) inopinatus (Nematoda) were collected. However, the dominance was mainly of I. multifiliis , while P. ( S. ) inopinatus was the parasite species with the lower levels of prevalence and abundance of infection. These parasite species showed an aggregated dispersion pattern. The parasitic fauna was characterized by the presence of few species of parasites with high prevalence and abundance, specifically ectoparasites, and a low number of endoparasites. The observed pattern is explained by the mode of life of the host and it is suggested that C. bimaculatum occupies a low trophic level at the food web.
TL;DR: Next-generation sequencing of a PYVV strain infecting tomato in Marinilla District (Antioquia) and sequence analysis suggests the presence of regions potentially undergoing positive selection in the ORFs coding for MET/HEL and CPm possibly as a result of host adaptation.
Abstract: Potato yellow vein virus (PYVV) is one of the most important pathogens of potato in the Andean region. In spite of having been detected in tomato crops in Colombia, knowledge on the biological characteristics of PYVV is limited on this host. In this study, next-generation sequencing (NGS) of a PYVV strain infecting tomato in Marinilla District (Antioquia) was performed; additionally, three primer set useful in RT-PCR and RT-qPCR detection were also tested. The consensus genome consisted of three RNA segments of 8043 nt (RNA1), 5346 nt (RNA2) and 3896 nt (RNA3) encoding ten ORF with slight lower sequence identity in relation to PYVV isolates from potato. Sequence analysis suggests the presence of regions potentially undergoing positive selection in the ORFs coding for MET/HEL and CPm possibly as a result of host adaptation. Experimental validation of primers resulted in amplicon with the expected size while melting temperature analysis and sequencing suggest the presence of at least two PYVV infecting S. lycopersicum in east Antioquia in agreement with the NGS data.
TL;DR: A population of Amaranthus palmeri was discovered in Bizerta Province, representing the first record for the national flora and the second record for Africa, and some nomenclatural confusion concerning the name A.Palmeri var.
Abstract: Background : Amaranthus is a critical genus from a taxonomic point of view because of its high phenotypic variability, which has led to nomenclatural disorder, misapplication of names, and erroneous species identification. As a whole, floristic and taxonomic studies on this genus are still incomplete. Objectives : The main objective was to record the North American species Amaranthus palmeri in Tunisia for the first time and to point out a second occurrence for Africa. At the same time, we highlight some nomenclatural confusion concerning the name A. palmeri var. glomeratus which appears to be untypified and which should be treated at species rank. Method : The work is based on field surveys, analysis of relevant literature and examination of specimens preserved in the herbaria GH, FI, HFLA, K, MICH, NEBC, NY, MO, P, RO, US, and the Herbarium of Bizerta University. Results : A population of Amaranthus palmeri was discovered in Bizerta Province, representing the first record for the national flora. This record also represents the second record for Africa. Morphological characters, as well as ecological data are provided. Nomenclatural notes are provided for A. palmeri var. glomeratus (lectotype at GH, here designated; isolectotypes at MICH and US), and a new name ( A. sonoriensis ) is proposed. Conclusion : Amaranthus palmeri is an alien species in Tunisia, growing along roadsides and in public gardens. Future monitoring of the populations found will be necessary to verify possible naturalisation and spreading of A. palmeri in Tunisia. If this happens, actions for eradication of the plants will be necessary.
TL;DR: Este caso de melitofilia permitio proponer los criterios para redefinir este tipo oficial de polinizacion en palmas silvestres neotropicales, mientras que en la fase femenina buscaban nectar.
Abstract: La ecologia de la polinizacion de Syagrus orinocensis fue estudiada durante tres periodos reproductivos, en un bosque de piedemonte en Casanare, Orinoquia colombiana. Syagrus orinocensis crece hasta 10m., produce de una a cuatro inflorescencias bisexuales aunque ocasionalmente son unisexuales. Las bisexuales presentan flores estaminadas y pistiladas agrupadas en triadas, y las unisexuales llevan solo estaminadas en diadas. Las inflorescencias protandricas abren de dia, y permanecieron activas 26 dias; la fase masculina se extendio los primeros 15 dias, siguio una fase inactiva por ocho dias, y finalmente, la fase pistilada por tres dias. Las inflorescencias fueron visitadas por 43 especies de insectos de los ordenes Coleoptera, Hymenoptera y Diptera. Los insectos visitaron las inflorescencias en fase masculina, donde buscaban polen y lugares para reproducirse, mientras que en la fase femenina buscaban nectar. Los polinizadores mas efectivos fueron abejas meliponinas (Apidae, Meliponini), que transfirieron adherido a su cuerpo el 83 % del polen. La presencia, constancia y eficiencia de abejas durante el estudio son evidencia solida de melitofilia en palmas. Este caso de melitofilia permitio proponer los criterios para redefinir este tipo de polinizacion en palmas silvestres neotropicales.
TL;DR: There is simply not sufficient data to begin to understand the role and impact of fungal invasions in South Africa, according to the National Status Report on Biological Invasions.
Abstract: Background : Fungi are a major component of the functioning of all terrestrial ecosystems. Objectives: To increase awareness of fungi as drivers of ecosystem processes, including invasion biology. Method : Here, I reviewed the information available regarding fungal invasions of native ecosystems in South Africa in the context of the National Status Report on Biological Invasions. Results : Only seven fungal species are regulated as invaders (all category 1b) under the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (NEM:BA) A&IS regulations. Four of these species are not yet known to occur in South Africa. Similarly, under the NEM:BA A&IS regulations, two of the four species listed as prohibited (i.e. not present in the country but which would pose a threat if introduced) are already present in the country. The actual number of alien fungi in South Africa is much greater. A preliminary listing of alien fungal species is made, with a total of 9 pathogenic species known to attack indigenous plants, 11 saprotrophic species, 1 fish pathogen, 23 host-specific pathogens of listed alien terrestrial plants, 61 ectomycorrhizal species and 7 host-specific pathogens deliberately introduced as biological control agents. The majority of fungal species were introduced to South Africa most likely via the introduction of crop plants as passengers, although there are as yet very little details available on pathways of introduction into South Africa. Conclusion : For almost all aspects considered, it is concluded that there is simply not sufficient data to begin to understand the role and impact of fungal invasions in South Africa.
TL;DR: In this article, the main vegetation types within the urban open spaces in the Bloemfontein metropolitan area, and to determine the floristic composition and species diversity of the area were identified.
Abstract: Background: Urban vegetation studies have, until recently, been relatively uncommon in South Africa. Yet, natural urban vegetation is constantly competing with and greatly impacted by urbanisation. This vegetation requires proper management and needs to be conserved because it is an important ecological infrastructure. Objectives: The objectives of the study were to identify the main vegetation types within the urban open spaces in the Bloemfontein metropolitan area, and to determine the floristic composition and species diversity of the area. Methods: A total of 248 releves were classified using the TWINSPAN classification algorithm, and relationships between the communities and the environment were determined with the Detrended Correspondence Analysis and Canonical Correspondence Analysis computer programs. Species diversity was partitioned into α -, β - and γ -diversities. Results: Within the study area, 77 plant families and 248 genera, with a total of 376 plant species, were identified. The largest families are Poaceae, Asteraceae and Fabaceae, whereas the largest genera are Eragrostis, Aristida, Cyperus, Asparagus and Senecio . The study area has high species richness and the most species-rich sites are found adjacent to rivers and streams, and also on the slopes of hills and ridges. The vegetation is classified under five major vegetation types and four sub-units, which show a distinct association with topography and soil texture. Conclusion: The urban vegetation of Bloemfontein is species-rich and should be properly managed and conserved. In particular, the wetlands and rocky outcrops on hills and ridges, which are the most threatened habitats in the study area, need special management.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors identify the dominant alien plant species and quantify their areal extent along a 479 km railway corridor in the Mpumalanga province in South Africa, and the extent of the invaded area was obtained by manual digitising of alien plant distribution and density from Satellite Pour l'Observation de la Terre 5 imagery and by further applying an Iterative Self-Organising Data Analysis technique of the unsupervised classification method.
Abstract: Background: Alien plant invasions are among the major threats to natural and semi-natural ecosystems in South Africa on approximately 18 million hectares of land. Much of the available data are not suitable for planning of local scale management because it is presented at a quarter degree grid square scale, which makes accurate location and estimates of invaded areas difficult. Objectives: The aim was to identify the dominant alien plant species and quantify their areal extent along a 479 km railway corridor in the Mpumalanga province. Method: The extent of the invaded area was obtained by manual digitising of alien plant distribution and density from Satellite Pour l’Observation de la Terre 5 imagery and by further applying an Iterative Self-Organising Data Analysis technique of the unsupervised classification method. Species’ occurrences were located and identified in the field using a Global Positioning System. Results: The most dominant invaders in terms of the number of individual polygons and the infested area were Eucalyptus spp., Acacia spp., Populus alba L., Pinus patula Schltdl & Cham., Salix babylonica L. and Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston. These species have also been previously classified as major invaders, although the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act regulations permit their planting provided spreading to adjacent areas is avoided except for C. decapetala , which must be cleared under all circumstances. Conclusion: Knowledge of the species’ occurrence and their extent will assist landowners and relevant authorities to control the spread of alien plants, which impact rail safety, agricultural production, water availability and biodiversity.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors developed a theoretical proposal of ecological connectivity for the Santa Elena village, Medellin municipality, Colombia, using tools from landscape ecology, and designed a potential network that would allow to connect 1356.35 ha of remnants forests through 31 ecological corridors of 100 m wide, comprising 208.33 ha in total.
Abstract: Forest fragmentation and the associated potential habitat loss is one of the main causes of biodiversity loss. One strategy that promotes its maintenance at a landscape scale is the establishment of biological corridors that enhance structural and functional connectivity of the biotic components. However, the applicability and functionality of this tool is limited due to the lack of planning at the moment of the design and establishment of corridors or connectivity networks that are guided by detailed and rigorous methods. In this research, we developed a theoretical proposal of ecological connectivity for the Santa Elena village, Medellin municipality, Colombia, using tools from landscape ecology. Initially, 21 forest fragments or nucleus were selected based on their minimum size (larger than 5 ha), core area (larger than 1 ha), and shape index (rounded or nearly rounded). Then, based on a friction matrix, we designed a potential network that would allow to connect 1356.35 ha of remnants forests through 31 ecological corridors of 100 m wide, comprising 208.33 ha in total. Finally, we discussed the importance of promoting this kind of strategies based on landscape ecology that enhance both habitat conservation and landscape connectivity in areas near large Latin-American cities.
TL;DR: The relationship between the country's environmental law and the roles played by government as the regulator, the wildlife industry, research and the public in achieving responsible wildlife management and the long-term conservation of this resource is discussed in this paper.
Abstract: A significant proportion of South African biodiversity occurs in extensive private wildlife areas. As such, the continuance of these private reserves is paramount to conservation of the country’s biodiversity. The areas are, however, vulnerable to being divided into smaller camps as landowners enter into the new and rapidly growing industry of selective breeding and intensive management of antelope and predators. Concerns are being raised as to the long-term consequences of the products and impacts of this industry on, inter alia , integrity and conservation of the country’s wildlife, and the landscapes these facilities are located in, as well as the country’s reputation as a free ranging and fair chase hunting destination. Using the public trust doctrine as a foundation, this article characterises the relationship between the country’s environmental law and the roles played by government as the regulator, the wildlife industry, research and the public in achieving responsible wildlife management and the long-term conservation of this resource. These relationships are seen to be finely balanced between the provision of robust science, and evidence-based and cautious or risk-averse decision-making. It is concluded that the public trust doctrine is a powerful tool to limit the impacts of unsustainable and parochial use of wildlife on the conservation of biodiversity. It is also concluded that an improved understanding of the doctrine by researchers, public and the wildlife industry would lead to a greater relevance of research, and in turn sound evidence-based decision-making and ultimately sustainable use of wildlife.
TL;DR: The updates to the VEGMAP have affected a small portion of the map but have reflected a progressive refinement in quality, and regions that are still mapped at a coarse scale should be prioritised for improved map accuracy and classification through a more proactive approach towards vegetation mapping.
Abstract: Background: The variety of applications in which the Vegetation Map of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (VEGMAP) is used requires the map to be continually updated and refined to reflect the latest available information. The VEGMAP has been updated twice, in 2009 and 2012, since its first release in 2006. Objectives: The first objective is to report on the motivations for changes in the 2009 and 2012 versions. The second objective is to describe new vegetation types and subtypes included in these versions. Method: Changes to the VEGMAP are implemented after a peer-review process that is managed by the National Vegetation Map Committee. Accepted changes are then incorporated into the VEGMAP using GIS software. Results: Seventy-one of the 449 vegetation types were affected by updates. Changes included the addition of new vegetation types and subtypes, modifications to the boundaries of types present in the 2006 VEGMAP and changes to the names of vegetation types. Conclusion: The updates have affected a small portion of the map but have reflected a progressive refinement in quality. Regions that are still mapped at a coarse scale, especially those earmarked for land-use development, should be prioritised for improved map accuracy and classification through a more proactive approach towards vegetation mapping, using guidelines that are under development.