scispace - formally typeset
Search or ask a question

Showing papers in "British Journal of Psychiatry in 1956"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The observed distribution of schizophrenia can be explained by the hypothesis that there is a segregation in certain areas of persons liable to schizophrenia or by the hypotheses that social isolation is a causal factor.
Abstract: 1. A study has been made of the distribution of 3,304 cases of mental disorder in Bristol. These were psychiatric cases admitted to mental hospitals or nursing homes during a five-year period, 1949–1953. The inception rate of different diagnostic categories in each of the city wards and in three groups of wards has been determined and correlated with three indices of social and economic level. 2. The distribution of schizophrenia departed very significantly from random, with high rates in the central wards. The distribution of manic-depressive psychosis, of neurosis and of senile dementia did not depart significantly from random. There is a marked association between schizophrenia rates and the number of people living alone; high schizophrenia rates occurred in areas of both high and low population density and of high and low mean rateable value. Rates for manic-depressive psychosis and for neurosis show a slight association with mean rateable value. Rates for senile dementia show no appreciable association with any of the three social indices. 3. The possible explanations of these results are considered and it is concluded that the observed distribution of schizophrenia can be explained by the hypothesis that there is a segregation in certain areas of persons liable to schizophrenia or by the hypothesis that social isolation is a causal factor.

174 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The results suggest that more severe stress is necessary to cause affective breakdown in those individuals who have been resistant during most of life, where as broadly speaking the reverse may be true of those with earlier breakdown.
Abstract: Summary The aetiological role of physical disability in affective disorder of old age has been studied in 231 consecutive admissions aged 60 and over The incidence of acute and chronic illness and serious sensory defect was compared in those whose first attack had occurred before 60 (120 cases) and those with a first breakdown after 60 (111 cases) Physical illness and/or sensory disability was present in 62 per cent of the men and 51 per cent of the women in the whole material In about one-sixth of all cases acute physical stress (illness, operation, or trauma) immediately preceded the onset of affective breakdown But in the group with onset after 60, the physical condition was more often an exacerbation of, or consisted in operative treatment for, underlying chronic disease, from which recovery was incomplete Chronic physical illness was found in 40 per cent Nearly every kind of illness, including sensory defect, was commoner in the group with late onset These results suggest that more severe stress is necessary to cause affective breakdown in those individuals who have been resistant during most of life In general, exogenous may be more important than constitutional factors in this group, where as broadly speaking the reverse may be true of those with earlier breakdown The difference between groups of late and early onset is more marked and consistent for males Physical illness is probably more important in the causation of affective psychosis commencing in old age in men; this may contribute to the higher proportion of males in the group of late onset Thorough physical investigation is indicated in all cases of affective disorder commencing in old age particularly in men Serious organic disease is often present and underlies hypochondriacal complaints

84 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A comprehensive review of the use of vocabulary as a test for clinical psychological testing can be found in this article, with a focus on the most recent developments in the field of clinical psychology.
Abstract: The problem of determining whether or not a particular individual has deteriorated intellectually or with respect to other skills is one which has exercised the ingenuity of clinical psychologists for a long time. Clearly the most satisfactory method from the point of view of reliability and validity is by means of the test-retest method over a given period of time, using tests for which adequate statistical information is available. However, since a direct estimate of the individual's previous level of intelligence is usually not available and since the psychologist often cannot wait six months or longer to obtain a direct retest, some method had to be devised which would overcome this difficulty. Babcock (1930) hit on the method of using the Vocabulary test as an estimate of previous level of intellectual ability and contrasting it with performance on other tests supposedly sensitive to deterioration in order to measure the amount of decline which had taken place. Some aspects of the use of vocabulary in clinical psychological testing have been reviewed by a number of writers (Cronbach, 1942; Feifel, 1949; Hunt, 1936; Jastak, 1949; Lewinski, 1948; Raven and Walshaw, 1944; Shakow, 1946), and the immense interest shown in vocabulary as a test may be inferred from the 101-page bibliography of vocabulary studies published by Dale (1949). However, previous reviews suffer from two defects in that (a) they do not attempt to cover the ground thoroughly or systematically, being usually introductory to an experiment, or not specifically concerned with the subject matter of this paper; and (b) they naturally give no information about the important research which has taken place in this field within the last few years. The present review has been undertaken for these reasons, and because of the intrinsic importance of the problem.

77 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A study of the influence of family setting on the distribution in Bristol of 441 cases of schizophrenia admitted to the Bristol Mental Hospital during a five-year period found that separation from the family appeared to have been a factor of importance in the development of the schizophrenic illness.
Abstract: 1. A study has been made of the influence of family setting on the distribution in Bristol of 441 cases of schizophrenia admitted to the Bristol Mental Hospital during a five-year period. 2. The ward rates for schizophrenics living with their families at the time of admission conformed to a random distribution throughout the city and showed no significant correlation with the proportion of single-person households. The rates for schizophrenics living out of family setting were highest in the central districts and showed very significant correlation with the proportion of single-person households. 3. Schizophrenic cases out of family setting were, as a group, significantly different from a group of manic-depressives out of family setting in numbers, distribution and proportion of abnormal personalities. 4. From a study of the histories and personalities of 64 schizophrenics out of family setting, the conclusion was reached that separation from the family was due in one-half of the cases to personality disorders, in a quarter of the cases to unavoidable external factors and in a sixth of the cases to the patients' own choice. In a quarter of the cases, separation from the family appeared to have been a factor of importance in the development of the schizophrenic illness.

75 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The histories and neurological findings, especially the frequency with which aphasia or disproportionately severe retardation of speech development, homonymous visual field defects and Jacksonian or epileptic attacks with visual or gustatory auras occurred suggest that the majority of the patients suffered from lesions of the cerebral cortex involving the temporal lobes in a proportion of the Patients.
Abstract: The histories and clinical findings of twenty-five children showing a characteristic type of overactive behaviour are described. The behaviour is typified by an increase in distractability, poor attention span, an apparently irresistible urge to touch and chew every object which is seen, a diminished capacity for spontaneous affectionate behaviour, aggressive outbursts, an absence of fear and a failure to respond to reprimand or chastisement. Neurological findings indicating the presence of cortical lesions were present in the majority of cases and thirteen, or about half, suffered from epilepsy. In most patients phenobarbitone resulted in an exacerbation of behaviour symptoms, though the drug appeared to diminish the epileptic manifestations. Amphetamine and primidone were successful in controlling both behaviour symptoms and epileptic manifestations in a high proportion of the patients to whom they were given. Most of the patients had histories suggesting the occurrence of cerebral injury. In thirteen this appeared to have been sustained at the time of birth, most commonly as a result of paranatal anoxia. In twelve cases it was acquired as a result of trauma or anoxia or of intracranial infections of which cerebral thrombophlebitis was the most common. All but two of the twelve acquired cases were under the age of three years at the time of their causative illness. The histories and neurological findings, especially the frequency with which aphasia or disproportionately severe retardation of speech development, homonymous visual field defects and Jacksonian or epileptic attacks with visual or gustatory auras occurred suggest that the majority of the patients suffered from lesions of the cerebral cortex involving the temporal lobes in a proportion of the patients. Abnormalities of behaviour showing a resemblance to the symptoms present in the patients in the series have been produced experimentally in animals by temporal lobotomy.

60 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In a subsequent research the classification of patients suggested by this study will be compared with the classifications derived independently from both clinical and psychological investigations.
Abstract: A report is given of a study on psychiatric classification which consisted of a factor analysis of the inter-correlations between 45 variables derived from the Item Sheet used at the Bethlem Royal and Maudsley Hospitals. The sample consisted of 819 male in-patients aged 16–59, having non-organic psychiatric disorders. The variables included the main symptoms and items from the past history of psychotic and of neurotic patients. Using Thurstone's centroid method of multiple factor analysis 6 factors were extracted accounting for 45 per cent. of the variance. The first two of the orthogonally rotated factors were identified as “Psychoticism” and “Neuroticism” and were in accordance with the hypothesis that these are independent dimensions. In a subsequent research the classification of patients suggested by this study will be compared with the classifications derived independently from both clinical and psychological investigations.

55 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The present paper has attempted to attack the problem of differential “memory function” by examining the discriminating power of certain test results as between “functional”, “doubtful” and “organic” groups of elderly patients, showing that the best discrimination between the groups is achieved by a simple perceptual task.
Abstract: 1. The aim of the research is to examine the relationship of certain aspects of mental functioning to the psychiatric illnesses of old age. The present paper has attempted to attack the problem of differential “memory function” by examining the discriminating power of certain test results as between “functional”, “doubtful” and “organic” groups of elderly patients. 2. The design of the present study shows that spuriously positive results may arise from inadequate control over factors contributing to the selection of the criterion groups. 3. The investigation fails to confirm, for the patients tested, the diagnostic usefulness of certain tests in common use. 4. The results fail to confirm the predictions of “Ribot's Law” as applied to memory in these elderly patients. 5. The study shows significant differences between the means of the results of the psychiatric groups on some tasks which appear to involve “memory function”. These differences cannot be accounted for merely in terms of group differences in general intelligence. The nature of the possible underlying “memory function” remains to be further examined. 6. The investigation so far shows that the best discrimination between the groups is achieved by a simple perceptual task (Bender Gestalt). 7. The study fails to show differences between groups on any of the tests which are sufficiently great to enable these tests to be immediately employed as useful diagnostic instruments.

55 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It was possible correctly to predict death, or discharge from mental care, during the subsequent year, in about three-quarters of patients over sixty admitted to a mental observation unit after an observation period not exceeding 10 days.
Abstract: This study shows that after an observation period not exceeding 10 days it was possible correctly to predict death, or discharge from mental care, during the subsequent year, in about three-quarters of patients over sixty (N=217) admitted to a mental observation unit. When arriving at a prognosis, account was taken in each case of: age, sex, civil and domestic status, social adjustment, physical health, previous psychiatric breakdown, and the presence of functional and psycho-organic mental symptoms. Serious physical illness, acute organic-confusional states, and age over 80, were the main conditions associated with death within the year; 40 per cent. of cases with acute confusion died within 3 months. Discharge from mental care was rare in the presence of definite dementia, or of severe social isolation before admission. The outlook for patients with purely functional disorders was good both for survival and for recovery. Those showing mixed syndromes had an intermediate prognosis; mild intellectual impairment did not appear to affect the outcome, but definite dementia rendered recovery unlikely. The attempt to predict death or recovery within 3 months from admission was unsuccessful. An analysis of our data in retrospect showed that insufficient weight had been placed on the following characteristics as indicating early death, when two or more were present in the same patient: male sex; age of 80 years or more; focal central nervous system lesions; absence of functional symptoms in an organic psychosis. Early recovery was unusual, but occurred in about 50 per cent. of those under 70 years of age, with functional symptoms as part of the clinical picture, history of recovery from previous attacks, absence of focal central nervous system lesions and adequate social contacts before admission.

43 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Overall assessment of the results shows that single persons are more likely to enter mental hospitals than married persons, that once in they are less likely to be discharged and that their duration of stay in hospital is longer than that of married persons.
Abstract: A statistical study of some 8,000 admissions to mental hospitals in Greater London has been made with a view to exhibiting differences between single and married persons in respect of hospital care. It was found that the first admission rates of single persons are much higher than those of married persons in similar age, sex and diagnostic categories; for example the age-standardized first admission rate of single men with schizophrenia was 6 times as high as that for married men. The ratios of single to married age-standardized rates for other diagnostic groups of male and female patients varied from 1 · 5 to 3 · 7. The hospital care received by the patients was measured by ( a ) the duration of the survey admission; ( b ) the termination of the survey admission; ( c ) the re-admission rates; ( d ) the total time spent in hospital over a follow-up period of at least two years; ( e ) the state of the patient at the end of his/her follow-up. When groups of patients, comparable with respect to previous history, length of follow-up period, legal status, age, sex and diagnosis, were examined according to their marital status, it was found that: 1. (i) Single persons stayed in hospital for longer periods than married persons, and in many instances for longer than the groups of widowed and divorced persons; 2. (ii) Proportionately more single than married persons were in mental hospitals at the end of the follow-up period;. 3. (iii) The re-admission rates for single persons who were discharged from their survey admission were not significantly higher than those for married persons;. 4. (iv) Over the whole follow-up period single persons stayed in mental hospitals for a longer time than married. 5. (v) The outcome for men showed no significant differences from that for women in the same marital status group. Only among manic depressives aged 30–49 years were the first admission rates for married men significantly less than those for married women. An overall assessment of the results shows that single persons are more likely to enter mental hospitals than married persons, that once in they are less likely to be discharged and that their duration of stay in hospital is longer than that of married persons.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The authors' findings with controlled groups receiving intravenous acetyl choline, carbon dioxide inhalation and inert substances are considered and a more critical attitude, both to the use of physical methods and of psychotherapy, is advocated.
Abstract: 1. Reference is made to some of the literature relating to placebo response and to suggestibility. 2. The authors' findings with controlled groups receiving intravenous acetyl choline, carbon dioxide inhalation and inert substances are considered in relation to placebo response. 3. Differential factors favoring placebo reaction are discussed. 4. A more critical attitude, both to the use of physical methods and of psychotherapy, is advocated.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The conclusion is reached that Lithium Salts can make a most useful contribution in the control of patients suffering from mania or hypomania, whether in hospital or after leaving.
Abstract: 1. Lithium Therapy for the treatment of Affective Disorders is described. 2. Results in a series of 58 patients are reported. 3. Markedly beneficial effect on manic and hypomanic illness is noted. 4. Toxic symptoms are recorded. 5. The literature is reviewed and the various writers' findings are compared. 6. The conclusion is reached that Lithium Salts can make a most useful contribution in the control of patients suffering from mania or hypomania, whether in hospital or after leaving. 7. The possibility of using Lithium Salts to help to stabilize cyclothymic patients undergoing leucotomy is put forward, and it is hoped to make a further study of this.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Clinically, most of the cases fell into a psychopathic-neurotic grouping and the probable roles that head injury, depression and alcoholism play in the production of fugues have been discussed.
Abstract: 1. Thirty-seven cases of fugue are presented, of which 24 had multiple and 13 single fugues. 2. Severe head injury was found in 16 cases and doubtful head injury in 3 cases, as against 3 in the controls. Ten of the patients were also alcoholic. 3. Depression was noted as a prominent feature in both fugue and control groups. When compared with the control group, a broken home life was not found to be specific. 4. Hysterical mechanisms were found to be fairly common and compulsive features rare. Clinically, most of the cases fell into a psychopathic-neurotic grouping. 5. The probable roles that head injury, depression and alcoholism play in the production of fugues have been discussed.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A forty-five year old man showed after a probable vascular lesion of the brain a marked aphasic disorder and absence of response to auditory stimuli, and a gradual limited improvement in the word sound perception occurred, but there was still a considerable defect after 18 months of observation.
Abstract: A forty-five year old man showed after a probable vascular lesion of the brain a marked aphasic disorder and absence of response to auditory stimuli. After a short period lasting only a few days, the aphasic disturbance had almost completely disappeared; the picture which followed was that of a pure word deafness associated with disturbance in rhythm, musical expression and some disturbance in writing. On audiometric testing, carried out six weeks after the start of the illness, the air and bone conduction of the left ear was normal and there was a moderate mixed deafness in the right ear. At this period the word deafness was still almost complete. The verbal sounds were experienced as an undifferentiated continuous humming noise without any rhythm. Subsequently a gradual limited improvement in the word sound perception occurred, but there was still a considerable defect after 18 months of observation. The sequence in which perception of various qualities of speech recovered was followed up, and a number of phenomena associated with the word deafness were studied. Some of these phenomena considered to be significant for the mechanism of the disorder have been discussed in detail.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Fifty cases of senile intellectual deterioration were studied and rating scales were devised for recording the amount of abnormality in the EEG and the degree of deterioration observed clinically.
Abstract: Fifty cases of senile intellectual deterioration were studied. Rating scales were devised for recording the amount of abnormality in the EEG and the degree of deterioration observed clinically. A trend of conformity was demonstrated between the clinical and the EEG assessments.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Psychotic reactions may be induced by Cortisone or by A.T.C.H., in the course of which suicidal depression or serious mental disturbance requiring leucotomy may add to the known physical risks of treatment with these hormones.
Abstract: 1. Psychotic reactions may be induced by Cortisone or by A.C.T.H., in the course of which suicidal depression or serious mental disturbance requiring leucotomy may add to the known physical risks of treatment with these hormones. 2. No constant feature of premorbid personality has been determined that may guide clinically in the anticipation of the more serious grades of mental reaction. 3. Women of menopausal age appear to be more susceptible to these reactions. 4. There is no correlation between electrolyte imbalance and the development of mental reactions.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: This Discriminant Function analysis was undertaken to ascertain whether the three groups, normal, psychotic, neurotic, could be described in terms of one dimension, or whether two dimensions would be required, and concluded that two dimensions are needed.
Abstract: Our problem was to determine whether neuroticism was differentiated from psychoticism qualitatively or quantitatively. The first step was to choose a battery of tests that appeared suitable from the literature; that is to say, tests which were previously found to be good differentiators of neurotic from normal groups, and psychotic from normal groups respectively. Having chosen sixteen such tests, these were administered to three main groups of subjects; 123 normal controls, 55 neurotics, and 55 psychotics. An analysis of variance was performed on the data to ascertain which of the test scores were the best differentiators. Six scores were chosen for the Discriminant Function analysis, largely on the basis of their high F ratios and their low correlations with age and intelligence. This Discriminant Function analysis was undertaken to ascertain whether the three groups, normal, psychotic, neurotic, could be described in terms of one dimension (one significant latent root only), or whether two dimensions would be required (two significant roots). Since we obtained two highly significant latent roots from our data, we conclude that two dimensions are needed to describe the differences of neurotics and psychotics from normal people. A composite likelihood score was calculated from the set of weights (latent vectors) obtained from the canonical variate analysis, and these were plotted in the two-dimensional space with the variates Y1 and Y2 as the co-ordinates. The misclassification rate obtained on the basis of a redistribution of diagnoses according to test results was 29 per cent ., a figure which fell to 21 per cent . when the abnormal groups alone were considered.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The errors in perception of the vertical of schizophrenic and normal subjects were found to differ significantly from the errors of organic and body percept cases, and a significant leftward tendency was found in normal females and in schizophrenic subjects of both sexes.
Abstract: 1. The nature of bodily perception and its relationship to the more familiar “body image” concept is discussed. 2. Disturbances of the body percept with disorientation in space, displacement of the central bodily axis from the vertical or division in the sagittal plane of the perceived body into halves are described. 3. An experimental method using the measurement of errors in perception of the vertical is described and related to the disturbances in perception of the body. 4. Groups of normal subjects, schizophrenic, organic and body percept cases have been tested by this method and the results found in the different groups are compared and contrasted. 5. The errors in perception of the vertical of schizophrenic and normal subjects were found to differ significantly from the errors of organic and body percept cases. There was no significant difference between the results of organic and body percept cases. 6. A significant leftward tendency in perception of the vertical was found in normal females and in schizophrenic subjects of both sexes. A rightward tendency was found in normal men and organic and body percept cases. 7. The significance of this sex difference and of the rightward and leftward tendency, together with other proven and suggested causes of errors in perception of the vertical, are discussed. 8. The value of a study of errors in perceptual tests where two spheres of bodily perception are involved for the investigation of disturbances of body perception is emphasized.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The thiocyanate space and 24-hour urinary excretions of acetylmethylcarbinol, butane-2:3-diol, uric acid, and creatinine have been estimated at frequent intervals and the uric Acid/creatinine ratio is decreased before and in association with the initial part of both manic and depressed phases.
Abstract: 1. The blood levels of acetylmethylcarbinol, butane-2:3-diol, pyruvate and glucose have been determined at twice-weekly intervals in a group of patients exhibiting alternating manic and depressive mood changes and in a group of subjects without mood variation while under observation. In addition, the thiocyanate space and 24-hour urinary excretions of acetylmethylcarbinol, butane-2:3-diol, uric acid, and creatinine have also been estimated at frequent intervals. 2. An increase in the thiocyanate space is associated with the normal inter-phases in the group showing alternating manic and depressive mood changes. The variation in thiocyanate space in the group without a mood change during the period of investigation is within normal limits. 3. A decrease in both the blood level and urinary excretion of acetylmethylcarbinol precedes and is associated with the early part of a manic phase. The relationship in time between the chemical change and the mood change is determined by the periodicity of the cycle. 4. The uric acid/creatinine ratio is decreased before and in association with the initial part of both manic and depressed phases.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: There is some evidence that the sphingomyelin content (exclusive of Cephalin B) gives the best indication of the degree of myelination up to the age 2 months.
Abstract: 1. The lipid content of the cortex and white matter of brains at various ages has been assessed, with particular reference to the myelin forming constituents. 2. The neonatal brain contains considerable amounts of cholesterol and cerebroside, but negligible amount of sphingomyelin. 3. In the white matter no changes are recorded up to age 2 months, except in the sphingomyelin which increases. The cholesterol and cerebroside increase between 2 months and 9 months, and reach their maximum adult level somewhere between 9 months and 5 years. On a wet basis, the cholesterol, cerebroside and sphingomyelin reach about half their adult value at age 9 months. 4. In the cortex, the cholesterol and cerebroside reach adult value at age 2 months. The sphingomyelin reaches about a third of its adult value at 9 months. 5. The highest Adult/Infant ratios are recorded for sphingomyelin, and the lowest for lecithin. 6. The total phosphatide is the only Lipid which, when increased, does so only by virtue of the reduced water content. 7. There is some evidence that the sphingomyelin content (exclusive of Cephalin B) gives the best indication of the degree of myelination up to the age 2 months.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The literature of folie a deux in relation to crime is briefly reviewed in this article, with special reference to crimes of violence and a case of matricide with the father's participation is reported.
Abstract: The literature of folie a deux in relation to crime is briefly reviewed, with special reference to crimes of violence. A case of matricide with the father's participation is reported. It is pointed out that the phenomena involved are not at all well-understood in terms of current theory.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: McKellar and Simpson as mentioned in this paper found that the mescaline-induced and hypnagogic states are more than superficially alike, and that a comparison may illuminate the processes at work in each.
Abstract: Similarity between certain of the visual effects of mescaline and hypnagogic imagery has been independently noted by several investigators, one of the earliest of these being Weir Mitchell (1896). Our own research group first became interested in hypnagogic experiences when one of the writers, as subject, in seeking to communicate the character of his mescaline visions, likened them to images he had encountered just before sleep. This led to an investigation of hypnagogic imagery as such, the results of which have been published elsewhere (McKellar and Simpson, 1954). Further experiments with mescaline, and consideration of the relevant literature of the two fields, suggest that the mescaline-induced and hypnagogic states are more than superficially alike, and that a comparison may illuminate the processes at work in each.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The history of psychological development in this field has recently been presented by Gertrude Keir and others (I) and the following observations have been culled from this work.
Abstract: WHIu@ to no one can the present state of child psychiatry afford grounds for complacency, there is at this time an awareness of shortcomings, a lively sense of self-criticism and an urgency for advance in one direction or another that does give some grounds for optimism. I have thought it profitable at the present time to attempt to survey the scene. Looking to the past, one should always start with a reference to antiquity or a classical allusion but I think a passing reference to the situation of sibling rivalry obtaining between Cain and Abel in the fourth chapter of Genesis will be sufficient. It does, however, give rise to the interesting inference that Eve our first mother had, as a mother, certain inadequacies. It is very difficult to get a clear historical perspective. This depends, like most perspectives, on where the observer is standing. Perhaps the three disciplines involved can best be studied in retrospect; the psychological—pedagogic ; the medical—paediatric—psychiatric ; the socio logical, with its present representative the psychiatric social worker. Even this division is not without difficulties as the exponents of the three have materially changed their functions in the short history of child psychiatry. If we look at the last hundred years, the psychological—pedagogic emerges prominently. The history of psychological development in this field has recently been presented by Gertrude Keir and others (I) and the following observations have been culled from this work. It is almost a hundred years since, based on the evolutionary school of Darwin, psychological studies came to be made of the child. Galton, in an anthropometric laboratory established at University College, made studies and measurements of children at the request of parents and teachers—―to learn their powers― or to “¿ obtain timely warning of remediable faults in their development―. Similar laboratories were advocated. Universal education in 1876 raised .urgently the question of varying intellectual capacity. Sully, Professor of Mind and Logic in London University, in 1894 established an education centre in his department with a laboratory to which children were brought for study and demonstration to students and teachers. A number of surveys were later made to assess norms. The British Child Study Association was set up in 1893 for the study of individual children by psychological, sociological and anthropometric methods. Centres were set up in cities outside London. In 1907 Burt became lecturer in psychology at Liverpool. In 1913 he was appointed by the L.C.C. as psychologist—to advise on individual problem children referred, assist in allocating children and make surveys of the school population. Educational, social data and medical informa tion was taken into account. In France a similar Child Study Group preceded the emergence of the tests of intelligence by Binet.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Examination of EEG records indicates that schizophrenics are like organics in their responses and that the responses of both groups are consistent with a theory of reduced sensitivity and response capacity, perhaps due to diencephalic dysfunction.
Abstract: A preliminary study has examined the responses to photic stimulation of normals, organics and brain-damaged schizophrenic patients. Consistent differences in the productivity of patterns, colours, depth and movement were found. Special differences in the meaningfulness of images were noted. Examination of EEG records indicates that schizophrenics are like organics in their responses and that the responses of both groups are consistent with a theory of reduced sensitivity and response capacity, perhaps due to diencephalic dysfunction. No relationships were found among reported images and psychological test data.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The conclusion is drawn that there is no valid logical or empirical reason far supposing that hallucinations are not real and the suggestion is made that a change in the present attitude of the authors' culture in this direction would be of therapeutic benefit to schizophrenics.
Abstract: This paper presents a phenomenological classification of hallucinations and analyses the emotional and conceptual reaction to these classes of hallucinatory sense-experience in the case of people in our own and other cultures. In general it can be said that in many (so called “primitive”) cultures hallucinations are regarded as real and people who have them are regarded as having real experiences and are accorded respect and deference, or sympathy and assistance, according to the circumstances. In our own culture people who have hallucinations, outside certain definite limits laid down by the culture, are regarded as being aberrant, mentally sick, “insane”. A brief enquiry into the logical and scientific basis for this attitude is then made. The conclusion is drawn that we have no valid logical or empirical reason far supposing that hallucinations are not real and the suggestion is made that a change in the present attitude of our culture in this direction would be of therapeutic benefit to schizophrenics.