Showing papers in "Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society in 2002"
TL;DR: The NCEP-DOE Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project (AMIP-II) reanalysis is a follow-on project to the "50-year" (1948-present) N CEP-NCAR Reanalysis Project.
Abstract: The NCEP–DOE Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project (AMIP-II) reanalysis is a follow-on project to the “50-year” (1948–present) NCEP–NCAR Reanalysis Project. NCEP–DOE AMIP-II re-analysis covers the “20-year” satellite period of 1979 to the present and uses an updated forecast model, updated data assimilation system, improved diagnostic outputs, and fixes for the known processing problems of the NCEP–NCAR reanalysis. Only minor differences are found in the primary analysis variables such as free atmospheric geopotential height and winds in the Northern Hemisphere extratropics, while significant improvements upon NCEP–NCAR reanalysis are made in land surface parameters and land–ocean fluxes. This analysis can be used as a supplement to the NCEP–NCAR reanalysis especially where the original analysis has problems. The differences between the two analyses also provide a measure of uncertainty in current analyses.
5,177 citations
TL;DR: CloudSat as discussed by the authors is a satellite experiment designed to measure the vertical structure of clouds from space, and once launched, CloudSat will orbit in formation as part of a constellation of satellites (the A-Train) that includes NASA's Aqua and Aura satellites, a NASA-CNES lidar satellite (CALIPSO), and a CNES satellite carrying a polarimeter (PARASOL).
Abstract: CloudSat is a satellite experiment designed to measure the vertical structure of clouds from space. The expected launch of CloudSat is planned for 2004, and once launched, CloudSat will orbit in formation as part of a constellation of satellites (the A-Train) that includes NASA's Aqua and Aura satellites, a NASA–CNES lidar satellite (CALIPSO), and a CNES satellite carrying a polarimeter (PARASOL). A unique feature that CloudSat brings to this constellation is the ability to fly a precise orbit enabling the fields of view of the CloudSat radar to be overlapped with the CALIPSO lidar footprint and the other measurements of the constellation. The precision and near simultaneity of this overlap creates a unique multisatellite observing system for studying the atmospheric processes essential to the hydrological cycle. The vertical profiles of cloud properties provided by CloudSat on the global scale fill a critical gap in the investigation of feedback mechanisms linking clouds to climate. Measuring these profi...
1,929 citations
TL;DR: A number of water budget-based drought indices have been developed over the last two centuries, including the Surface Water Supply Index (SWSI) and the Palmer Index as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The monitoring and analysis of drought have long suffered from the lack of an adequate definition of the phenomenon. As a result, drought indices have slowly evolved during the last two centuries from simplistic approaches based on some measure of rainfall deficiency, to more complex problem-specific models. Indices developed in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century included such measures as percent of normal precipitation over some interval, consecutive days with rain below a given threshold, formulae involving a combination of temperature and precipitation, and models factoring in precipitation deficits over consecutive days. The incorporation of evapotranspiration as a measure of water demand by Thornthwaite led to the landmark development in 1965 by Palmer of a water budget-based drought index that is still widely used. Drought indices developed since the 1960s include the Surface Water Supply Index, which supplements the Palmer Index by integrating snowpack, reservoir storage, streamflow, a...
1,575 citations
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TL;DR: The Drought Monitor was started in spring 1999 in response to a need for improved information about the status of drought across the United States as discussed by the authors, and serves as an example of interagency cooperation in a time of limited resources.
Abstract: The Drought Monitor was started in spring 1999 in response to a need for improved information about the status of drought across the United States. It serves as an example of interagency cooperation in a time of limited resources. The Drought Monitor process also illustrates the creative use of Internet technologies to disseminate authoritativeinformation about drought and to receive regional and local input that is in turn incorporated into the product. This paper describes the Drought Monitor and the interactive process through which it is created.
1,104 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors evaluated the severity of meteorological, agricultural, and hydrological forms of drought using six weighted evaluation criteria: robustness, tractability, transparency, sophistication, extendability, and dimensionality.
Abstract: Indices for objectively quantifying the severity of meteorological, agricultural, and hydrological forms of drought are discussed. Indices for each drought form are judged according to six weighted evaluation criteria: robustness, tractability, transparency, sophistication, extendability, and dimensionality. The indices considered most promising for succinctly summarizing drought severity are computed for two climate divisions in Oregon for 24 water years, 1976-99. The assessment determined that the most valuable indices for characterizing meteorological, hydrological, and agricultural droughts are rainfall deciles, total water deficit, and computed soil moisture, respectively.
1,019 citations
TL;DR: The second generation of European geostationary meteorological satellites, Meteosat Second Generation (MSG), is scheduled for launch in summer 2002 as mentioned in this paper, which is spin stabilized and has greatly enhanced capabilities.
Abstract: This paper introduces the new generation of European geostationary meteorological satellites, Meteosat Second Generation (MSG), scheduled for launch in summer 2002. MSG is spin stabilized, as is the current Meteosat series, however, with greatly enhanced capabilities. The 12-channel imager, called the Spinning Enhanced Visible and Infrared Imager (SEVIRI), observes the full disk of the earth with an unprecedented repeat cycle of 15 min. SEVIRI has eight channels in the thermal infrared (IR) at 3.9,6.2,7.3, 8.7, 9.7, 10.8, 12.0, and 13.4 μum; three channels in the solar spectrum at 0.6, 0.8, and 1.6 μm; and a broadband high-resolution visible channel. The high-resolution visible channel has a spatial resolution of 1.67 km at nadir; pixels are oversampled with a factor of 1.67 corresponding to a sampling distance of 1 km at nadir. The corresponding values for the eight thermal IR and the other three solar channels are 4.8-km spatial resolution at nadir and an oversampling factor of 1.6, which corresponds to...
887 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the impacts of increasing horizontal resolution on the performance of mesoscale numerical weather prediction models are examined, with particular benefits for orographically and diurnally driven flows.
Abstract: This paper examines the impacts of increasing horizontal resolution on the performance of mesoscale numerical weather prediction models. A review of previous studies suggests that decreasing grid spacing to approximately 10 km or less generally produces more realistic mesoscale structures, with particular benefits for orographically and diurnally driven flows. There have been only a few long-term objective verification studies of high-resolution forecasts, and these studies suggest, perhaps deceptively, that there are diminishing returns as horizontal grid spacing decreases below approximately 10 km. A multiyear objective verification of the University of Washington MM5 real-time forecasting system compares the realism of predicted surface parameters at 36-, 12-, and 4-km grid spacing over western Washington state for periods up to 48 h. Traditional verification statistics (such as mean absolute, bias, and root-mean-square error) are calculated by interpolating model forecasts to the observation sites. Fo...
717 citations
TL;DR: The Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean (SHEBA) project as discussed by the authors collected ocean, ice, and atmospheric datasets over a full annual cycle that could be used to understand the processes controlling surface heat exchanges.
Abstract: A summary is presented of the Surface Heat Budget of the Arctic Ocean (SHEBA) project, with a focus on the field experiment that was conducted from October 1997 to October 1998. The primary objective of the field work was to collect ocean, ice, and atmospheric datasets over a full annual cycle that could be used to understand the processes controlling surface heat exchanges—in particular, the ice–albedo feedback and cloud–radiation feedback. This information is being used to improve formulations of arctic ice–ocean–atmosphere processes in climate models and thereby improve simulations of present and future arctic climate. The experiment was deployed from an ice breaker that was frozen into the ice pack and allowed to drift for the duration of the experiment. This research platform allowed the use of an extensive suite of instruments that directly measured ocean, atmosphere, and ice properties from both the ship and the ice pack in the immediate vicinity of the ship. This summary describes the project goal...
575 citations
TL;DR: The Cooperative Atmosphere-Surface Exchange Study-1999 (CASES-99) refers to a field experiment carried out in southeast Kansas during October 1999 and the subsequent program of investigation as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The Cooperative Atmosphere-Surface Exchange Study—1999 (CASES-99) refers to a field experiment carried out in southeast Kansas during October 1999 and the subsequent program of investigation. Comprehensive data, primarily taken during the nighttime but typically including the evening and morning transition, supports data analyses, theoretical studies, and state-of-the-art numerical modeling in a concerted effort by participants to investigate four areas of scientific interest. The choice of these scientific topics is motivated by both the need to delineate physical processes that characterize the stable boundary layer, which are as yet not clearly understood, and the specific scientific goals of the investigators. Each of the scientific goals should be largely achievable with the measurements taken, as is shown with preliminary analysis within the scope of three of the four scientific goals. Underlying this effort is the fundamental motivation to eliminate deficiencies in surface layer and turbul...
533 citations
TL;DR: The MesoWest program as mentioned in this paper augments the Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS) network maintained by the NWS, Federal Aviation Administration, and Department of Defense to improve timely access to automated observations for NWS forecasters at offices throughout the western United States.
Abstract: Meteorological data from over 2800 automated environmental monitoring stations in the western United States are collected, processed, archived, integrated, and disseminated as part of the MesoWest program. MesoWest depends upon voluntary access to provisional observations from environmental monitoring stations installed and maintained byfederal, state, and local agencies and commercial firms. In many cases, collection and transmission of these observations are facilitated by NWS forecast offices, government laboratories, and universities. MesoWest augments the Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS) network maintained by the NWS, Federal Aviation Administration, and Department of Defense. MesoWest increases the coverage of observations in remote locations and helps capture many of the localand mesoscale weather phenomena that impact the public. The primary goal of MesoWest is to improve timely access to automated observations for NWS forecasters at offices throughout the western United States. ...
297 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a new National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) numerical seasonal forecast system is described, which is aimed at a next-generation numerical seasonal prediction in which focus is placed on land processes, initial conditions, and ensemble methods, in addition to the tropical SST forcing.
Abstract: The new National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) numerical seasonal forecast system is described in detail. The new system is aimed at a next-generation numerical seasonal prediction in which focus is placed on land processes, initial conditions, and ensemble methods, in addition to the tropical SST forcing. The atmospheric model physics is taken from the NCEP–National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) reanalysis model, which has more comprehensive land hydrology and improved physical processes. The model was further upgraded by introducing three new parameterization schemes: 1) the relaxed Arakawa–Schubert (RAS) convective parameterization, which improved middle latitude response to tropical heating; 2) Chou's shortwave radiation, which corrected surface radiation fluxes; and 3) Chou's longwave radiation scheme together with smoothed mean orography that reduced model warm bias. Atmospheric initial conditions were taken from the operational NCEP Global Data Assimilation System, allowing t...
TL;DR: For many, and for beyond 4-day lead time for all users, the ensemble provides greater potential economic benefit than a control forecast, even if the latter is run at higher horizontal resolution.
Abstract: The potential economic benefit associated with the use of an ensemble of forecasts versus anequivalent or higher-resolution control forecast is discussed. Neither forecast systems are post-processed,except a simple calibration that is applied to make them reliable. A simple decision-making model is used where all potential users of weather forecasts are characterized by the ratio between the cost of their action to preventweather-related damages, and the loss that they incur in case they do not protect their operations. It isshown that the ensemble forecast system can be used by a much wider range of users. Furthermore,for many, and for beyond 4-day lead time for all users, the ensemble provides greater potential economicbenefit than a control forecast, even if the latter is run at higher horizontal resolution. It is argued that theadded benefits derive from 1) the fact that the ensemble provides a more detailed forecast probabilitydistribution, allowing the users to tailor their weather forecast...
TL;DR: A major urban tracer and meteorological field campaign (URBAN 2000) was conducted in Salt Lake City, Utah during October 2000 as discussed by the authors, where seven nighttime intensive experiments were designed to resolve interacting scales of atmospheric motion from the individual building scale up through the urban scale.
Abstract: A major urban tracer and meteorological field campaign (URBAN 2000) was conducted in Salt Lake City, Utah during October 2000. Sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy?s (DOE?s) Chemical and Biological National Security Program, the month-long field campaign received supplemental support (personnel and equipment) from other U.S. and foreign government agencies and private companies. Seven nighttime intensive experiments were designed to resolve, with both inert tracers and meteorological measurements, interacting scales of atmospheric motion from the individual building scale up through the urban scale. Scale interaction was extended beyond the urban scale to the regional scale by embedding the URBAN 2000 study in DOE?s Vertical Transport and Mixing Program tracer and meteorological studies conducted simultaneously in the greater Salt Lake Valley. Results from the URBAN 2000 study will be used to evaluate and improve the hierarchy of atmospheric models being developed for simulating toxic agent dispersal from potential terrorist activities in urban environments. In addition, the results will be used to identify and further understand the meteorological and fluid dynamic processes governing dispersion in urban environments. The strength of the URBAN 2000 study is that it provides a data set that resolves interacting scales of motion from the individual buildingmore » up through the regional scale under the same meteorological conditions. This paper summarizes the URBAN 2000 study by describing the experimental design, instrument layout, experiments and meteorological conditions investigated. The paper also discusses initial findings.« less
TL;DR: In this article, a change in the number of days when the minimum daily temperature dips below freezing or "frost days" was examined for the 1948-99 period, and the results showed that the country as a whole has experienced a slight decrease in the average number of frost days, with the biggest decreases in the winter and spring seasons.
Abstract: One of the signals expected with greenhouse warming is a change in what are now considered extreme temperatures. In this paper one type of extreme is examined for the 1948-99 period, that is, a change in the number of days when the minimum daily temperature dips below freezing or "frost days." This is approached by looking at two questions: 1) have there been changes in the number of frost days per year, or per season, and 2) are there trends in the dates of thefirst autumn frost, last spring frost, and length of the frost-free season? Results show that the country as a whole has experienced a slight decrease in the number of days, with the biggest decreases in the winter and spring. Changes in frost dates for autumn show small changes to a later date, but the date of the lastspring freeze shows a distinctmove to an earlier date. This results in an increase in the frost-free season. However, there is a distinct spatial pattern to the results that is consistent with the spatial pattern of annual t...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors evaluate seasonal climate forecasts from the perspective of distinct user groups, considering lead times, seasons, and criteria relevant to their specific situations, and show how results targeted for different user perspectives can provided different assessments of forecast performance.
Abstract: Water managers, cattle ranchers, and wildland fire managers face several barriers to effectively using climate forecasts. Repeatedly, these decision makers state that they lack any quantitative basis for evaluating forecast credibility. That is because the evaluations currently available typically reflect forecaster perspectives rather thanthose of users, or are not available in forms that users can easily obtain or understand. Seasonal climateforecasts are evaluated from the perspective of distinct user groups, considering lead times, seasons, and criteria relevant to their specific situations. Examples show how results targeted for different user perspectives can providedifferent assessments of forecast performance. The forecasts evaluated are the official seasonal temperature andprecipitation outlooks issued by the NOAA Climate Prediction Center, produced in their present format since December 1994. It is considered how forecast formats can affect the ease, accuracy, and reliability of interpr...
TL;DR: The atmospheric boundary layer is home to a number of horizontally elongated quasi-two-dimensionalphenomena including cloud streets, roll vortices, thermal waves, and surface layer streaks as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The atmospheric boundary layer is home to a number of horizontally elongated quasi-two-dimensionalphenomena including cloud streets, roll vortices, thermal waves, and surface layer streaks. These phenomena, their dynamics, and their interactions are explored via a review of the literature. Making a clear distinction betweenthe various quasi-two-dimensional phenomena allows improved synthesis of previous results and a betterunderstanding of the interrelationships between phenomena.
TL;DR: The first comprehensive study of the coupled ocean-atmosphere system in the eastern Indian Ocean and the southern Bay of Bengal was conducted by the Joint Air-Sea Monsoon Interaction Experiment (JASMINE).
Abstract: The methods and initial results of an extensive pilot study, the Joint Air–Sea Monsoon Interaction Experiment (JASMINE) held in the Indian Ocean during the summer of 1999, are described. The experimental design was based on the precept that the monsoon sways back and forth from active to inactive (or break) phases and that these intraseasonal oscillations are coupled ocean–atmosphere phenomena that are important components of the monsoon system. JASMINE is the first comprehensive study of the coupled ocean–atmosphere system in the eastern Indian Ocean and the southern Bay of Bengal. Two research vessels, the NOAA ship Ronald H. Brown and the Australian research vessel Franklin, totaled 52 days of surveillance in April–June and September, with 388 conductivity–temperature–depth (CTD) casts and 272 radiosonde ascents. In addition, both ships carried identical flux systems to measure the ocean–atmosphere interaction. The Brown had five radar systems and profilers, including a cloud radar and a Doppler C-band...
TL;DR: A month-long meteorological field campaign sponsored by the Department of Energy's Environmental Meteorology Program was conducted during October 2000 in the Salt Lake Valley to study vertical transport and mixing (VTMX) processes as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: A month-long meteorological field campaign sponsored by the Department of Energy's Environmental Meteorology Program was conducted during October 2000 in the Salt Lake Valley to study vertical transport and mixing (VTMX) processes. The goals of the program are to increase our understanding of these processes, to improve our ability to measure and characterize them, and to incorporate that improved knowledge into conceptual and numerical models that can be used to describe and predict them. The program is currently concentrating on nocturnal stable periods and morning and evening transition periods, and it is further focused on urban areas located in valleys, basins, or other settings affected by nearby elevated terrain. Approximately 75 people participated in the campaign. The campaign featured a wide range of remote sensing and in situ measurements, including those from six radar wind profilers, six sodars, five radio acoustic sounding systems, a Doppler lidar, two aerosol lidars, and a water vapor lidar, as many as 22 rawinsonde soundings per Intensive Observing Period (IOP), and the simultaneous release of up to seven perfluorocarbon tracers. Preliminary results show the existence of strong cold pools forming over the valley center with significant wind shear aloft and intermittent turbulence close to themore » surface, a heat island over the downtown area at night and areas with substantially cooler temperatures nearby, regions of strong convergence and divergence affected by a narrow jet through a gap in the mountains to the south and flows out of the canyons to the east, and extensive wave activity.« less
TL;DR: Expanding capabilities an new requirements for atmospheric information services create an exciting new era with economic and political challenge and a need for clear priorities as discussed by the authors. But, as discussed in previous work, these capabilities need to be adapted to the requirements of the future.
Abstract: Expanding capabilities an new requirements for atmospheric information services create an exciting new era with economic and political challenge and a need for clear priorities.
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TL;DR: In this article, a negative correlation between the fractional area coverage by high clouds and the average sea surface temperatures (SSTs) under the clouds was observed in about 20 months of Geostationary Meteorological Satellite (GMS) radiance data for the oceanic regions in the domain between 30°S-30°N and 130°E-170°W.
Abstract: |indzen et al. (2001, hereafter LCH) present observational analysis suggesting that the area coverage of anvil clouds associated with tropical convection is less extensive when sea surface temperatures (SSTs) are higher. This conclusion is based on a negative correlation between the fractional area coverage by high clouds and the average SST under the clouds. LCH observe this correlation in about 20 months of Geostationary Meteorological Satellite (GMS) radiance data for the oceanic regions in the domain between 30°S–30°N and 130°E–170°W. LCH then used this correlation to hypothesize that increased SST leads to reduced area of anvil cloud associated with convective cores in the Tropics. They then concluded that reduced anvil cloud would give rise to a negative feedback through reduced upper-tropospheric water vapor and diminished greenhouse effect. We have obtained the cloud data from LCH and have investigated the geographical patterns of cloud fraction variation that are associated with variations in the cloud-weighted SST. These patterns show that the changes in cloud-weighted SST for clouds with emission temperatures less than 260 K are dominated by cloud variations in subtropical latitudes. These variations are geographically separated from the variations in the deepest convective clouds (those with emission temperatures less than 220 K), which occur only near the equator where surface temperatures are highest. LCH assume that the coldest clouds are representative of the convective cores that feed anvil clouds. In this article we show that the deep convective cores are separated by more than 1000 km from the clouds that are associated with most of the variation in cloud-weighted SST. The explanation for the correspondence between cloud-weighted SST and cloud area is thus a shift in the latitude or longitude of the cloudiness and not a change in the relation between deep convective and associated tropical anvil cloud amounts. These latitude and longitude shifts are associated with meteorological forcing and not with SST forcing. Much of the meteorological forcing seems to originate in the extratropics and is probably unrelated to tropical SSTs. If the SSTs and the nearequatorial clouds remain fixed and constant, any variation in subtropical cloud fraction will produce the negative correlation on which LCH base their negative feedback hypothesis.
TL;DR: The Drought Monitor is both a product and an activity as discussed by the authors, and the results are assimilated by the “author of the week” into a consensus product in the form of a national map.
Abstract: AUGUST 2002 AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY | T his issue of BAMS contains several articles that emphasize how we describe the status of drought. Interest in this topic has risen because of a combination of natural and human factors. The Southwest–southern Great Plains drought of 1995–96 led to the establishment of the Western Drought Coordination Council (WDCC) by the Western Governors Association. The subsequent National Drought Policy Commission (NDPC) expanded on WDCC recommendations distilled from the western experience. Both groups emphasized climate monitoring as a necessity. In May 1999, drought in an area of tremendous climatic significance—Washington, D.C.—led to the establishment of the Drought Monitor. A small cadre of climatologists, originally in the West—the Climate Prediction Center, the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC), and the National Drought Mitigation Center— were involved in every step in this sequence, and participation has gradually grown since. The Drought Monitor is both a product and an activity. An extended e-mail “conversation” takes place for about 2–3 days each week, and the results are assimilated by the “author of the week” into a consensus product in the form of a national map. During a typical week about 15–20 out of a total distribution of around 140 individuals participate, mostly from affected areas. The article by Svoboda et al. captures the flavor of the Drought Monitor very well. The discussions, ranging widely as conditions and issues unfold, have proven to be a rich source of provocative thought. It is from these and numerous earlier WDCC discussions, and other experiences over the prior 15 years, that the personal perspective has been acquired to offer the observations and comments that follow.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the diurnal evolution of thermally driven plain-mountain winds, up and down-valley winds and up-and down-slope winds for summer fair weather conditions in four regions of the Intermountain West where dense wind networks were operated.
Abstract: This paper investigates the diurnal evolution of thermally driven plain–mountain winds, up- and down-valley winds, up- and downslope winds, and land–lake breezes for summer fair weather conditions in four regions of the Intermountain West where dense wind networks have been operated. Because of the diverse topography in these regions, the results are expected to be broadly representative of thermally driven wind climates in the Intermountain West. The regions include the Wasatch Front Valleys of northern Utah, the Snake River Plain of Idaho, the southern Nevada basin and range province, and central Arizona. The analysis examines wind characteristics, including the regularity of the winds and interactions of the four types of thermally driven winds, using meteorological data from the University of Utah's MesoWest network. In general, on fair weather days, winds in all four regions exhibit a consistent direction from day to day at a given hour. A measure of this wind consistency is defined. The nighttime ho...
TL;DR: A cooperative, multinational effort to improve the monitoring and assessment of climate extremes is described in this article, where the authors present a set of tools and techniques to monitor and assess climate extremes.
Abstract: A cooperative, multinational effort to improve the monitoring and assessment of climate extremes.
TL;DR: In this article, the sea surface temperature (SST) fields in the tropical Atlantic and equatorial Indian Oceans were found to be closely associated with climatic anomalies, but there is no seesaw.
Abstract: The term “dipole” implies a seesaw, inverse variations of an element at the extremities of an oscillationsystem. The Southern Oscillation and North Atlantic Oscillation are examples of such mainly standing oscillations inpressure. By contrast, for the sea surface temperature (SST) fields in the tropical Atlantic and equatorialIndian Oceans, the SST gradient was found to be closely associated with climatic anomalies, but there is no seesaw. Use the term dipole is misleading.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that the allocation of resources to weather in the public and private sectors is unlikely to become more effective or grow significantly unless the weather community takes an integrated perspective on weather impacts, forecasts, and policy that provides decision makers with reliable information on the costs and benefits of alternative courses of action.
Abstract: Society invests considerable resources into the science and technology of weather services. In order to effectively assess the market for weather services, and thus properly scale the level of resources that, for example, the U.S. Congress or a company ought to devote to serving this market, decision makers need information on the costs and benefits associated with alternative courses of action. To date such information has not been readily or systematicallyavailable, leaving unanswered questions about the effectiveness of investment in the science and technology of weather. We argue herein that the allocation of resources to weather in the public and private sectors is unlikely tobecome more effective or—of particular concern to the weather community—grow significantly unless the weather community takes an integrated perspective on weather impacts, forecasts, and policy that provides decision makers with reliable information on the costs and benefits of alternative courses of action. This paper ...
TL;DR: In this article, a method for observing precipitation using 94-Ghz Doppler radar was proposed, based on the Mie scattering of microwave radiation by large particles, which makes possible an innovative method for detecting precipitation.
Abstract: Scattering of microwave radiation by large particles-Mie scattering-makes possible an innovative method for observing precipitation using 94-Ghz Doppler radar.
TL;DR: This paper summarizes a number of methods that have been used previously and others that areworthy of trial that are suitable for use in calibration of weather radars.
Abstract: The proper calibration of weather radars has been at the heart of the problem of accurate reflectivity measurements for more than five decades. This paper summarizes a number of methods that have been used previously and others that areworthy of trial.