Showing papers in "Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences-revue Canadienne Des Sciences De L Administration in 2009"

HRM Practices and Organizational Commitment: Test of a Mediation Model

Abstract: This study was conducted to examine the mechanisms involved in observed relations between human resource management (HRM) practices and employee commitment. Employees (N = 281) from several organizations completed a survey that included measures of (a) the quality of HRM practices pertaining to performance appraisal, benefits, training, and career development used in their organizations, (b) procedural justice and organizational support, and (c) affective, continuance, and normative commitment to the organization. Structural equation modeling analyses revealed that relations between employees' evaluations of HRM practices and their affective and normative commitment were largely mediated by perceptions of organizational support and procedural justice. These findings support previous claims that, although HRM practices can be valuable tools in the establishment and maintenance of employee commitment, their effects are neither direct nor unconditional. Resume Cette etude avait pour but d'examiner certains mecan-ismes intervenant dans le lien entre les pratiques de ges-tion des ressources humaines et l'engagement des employes. Des employes (N=281) de plusieurs organisations ont rempli un questionnaire incluant des mesures de: (a) qualite des pratiques de gestion des ressources humaines en matiere d'evaluation du rendement, de compensation, deformation et de developpement profes-sionnel, (b) justice en matiere de procedure et soutien organisationnel, et (c) engagement organisationnel affectif, continuation, et normatif. Des analyses basees sur la modelisation d'equations structurelles ont revele que les liens entre l'evaluation par les employes des pratiques de gestion des ressources humaines et leur engagement affectif et normatif etaient en grande partie mediatises par leur perception du soutien organisationnel et de justice en matiere de procedure. Ces resultats corroborent le fait que malgre l'importance des pratiques de gestion des ressources humaines dans l'etab-lissement et le maintien de l'engagement des employes, leurs effets ne sont ni directs ni inconditionnels.

A Global Mindset — A Prerequisite for Successful Internationalization?

Abstract: This study offers a contribution to our understanding of the role of a global mindset in the successful internationalization of small and medium-sized companies. The particular focus is on the drivers of the global mindset and the connection with performance. We created a framework and tested it, empirically, with a representative sample of small Finnish companies in the field of information and communications technology (ICT). The findings indicate that managerial experience and market characteristics are important drivers of the global mindset, which, in turn, is one of the key parameters of international performance. The paper includes our conclusions, a discussion of the limitations of the study and the managerial implications, and suggestions for future research. Resume La presente etude se propose de faire comprendre le role que joue la mentalite globale dans l'internationalisation heureuse des petites et moyennes entreprises. Nous nous appesantissons surtout sur les facteurs motivants de la mentalite et sur ses rapports avec la performance. Nous creons un cadre que nous testons, de facon empirique, a partir d'un echantillon representatif de petites entreprises finnoises operant dans le secteur des Technologies de l'information et de la communication (ICT). Les resultats indiquent que l'experience en matiere de gestion et les caracteristiques du marche sont des catalyseurs importants de la mentalite globale qui, a son tour, est l'un des parametres cle de la performance internationale. L'etude degage egalement nos conclusions, ses implications en matiere de gestion, ses limites et propose des pistes de recherche futures.

The Impact of Brand Commitment on Loyalty to Retail Service Brands

Abstract: This paper incorporates the developing body of literature in relationship marketing to the study of brand loyalty. Relationship marketing literature has established that customer commitment is a central, complex construct consisting of at least an affective component and a continuance component. This study examined the extent to which affective and continuance commitment serve as mediators of the brand satisfaction—loyalty intentions relationship. The study found that, in two retail service brand settings, the two components of commitment fully mediate the relationship between brand satisfaction and both repurchase intentions and advocacy intentions. In addition, the study found that affective commitment to the brand was strongly and positively related to both repurchase intentions for the brand and willingness to act as an advocate on behalf of the brand. Continuance commitment was at best only weakly but positively related to repurchase intentions, but negatively related to advocacy intentions for the brand. Resume Le present article combine les publications de plus en plus nombreuses relatives au marketing cible et l'etude de la fidelite a la marque. Les publications relatives au marketing cible ont etabli que l'engagement du client est un concept central et complexe qui comprend au moins une composante affective et une composante de continuation. Cette etude examine dans quelle mesure l'engagement affectif et l'engagement de continuation mediatisent la satisfaction par rapport a la marque—rapport d'intentions de fidelite. L'etude revele que dans deux contextes de service de detail de marque, les deux composantes d'engagement mediatisent completement le rapport entre la satisfaction par rapport a la marque d'une part, les intentions de rachat et les intentions de promotion d'autre part. Par ailleurs, l'engagement affectif a la marque est fortement et positivement relie aux intentions de rachat de la marque et a la volonte de recommander et de defendre la marque. L'engagement de continuation est au mieux relie uniquement, faiblement mais positivement aux intentions de rachat. Cependant, il est negativement relie aux intentions de recommandation pour la marque.

Petty Tyranny in Organizations: A Preliminary Examination of Antecedents and Consequences

Abstract: Petty tyranny is defined as the tendency to lord one's power over others. A model of the individual and situational antecedents of petty tyranny in organizations and the effects of tyranny on subordinates is presented. The model is assessed via 63 sets of respondents, each consisting of one manager and two subordinates, plus 25 partial sets. The hypothesized effects are generally supported, but not the hypothesized antecedents. It is speculated that petty tyranny represents a relatively rare gestalt, that is, an integrated and resilient cluster of antecedents, leader behaviours, and effects on subordinates. Consider the following: In the three months since [the new owner of the pharmacy] has been in charge [he] has made it clear that he is at liberty to fire employees at will ... change their positions, decrease their bonus percentages, and refuse time-off and vacation choices. Furthermore, he has established an authoritarian work structure characterized by distrust, cut-backs on many items deemed essential to work comfort, disrespect, rigidity and poor-to-no communication ... [He regards employees as] potential thieves and squanderers of work time. As a result, he consistently spies on employees ... These changes have been so pervasive that ... the employees no longer refer to the [pharmacy] as a "small family" but as the "third Reich" with [him] in the role of Hitler. (Giarrusso, 1990, pp. 5-6) [Harry Figgie] can be the nicest fellow in the world one day and totally abusive the next: "Men running $100 million divisions would come into my office and ask if it was safe to see Harry that day" ... "Figgie takes no prisoners when it comes to an insult. He'll call anyone a horse's ass anywhere" ... "Headquarters was like a tomb. People were scared. Harry chewed me out again and again and again. Every day he'd work me over. I lost 40 pounds putting in six days a week until ten o'clock every night, never sure I'd have a job in the morning." (Nulty, 1989, p. 41) "Petty tyrant" is a colloquial term that is often used to describe such managers. It suggests someone who uses their power and authority oppressively, capriciously, and perhaps vindictively. It suggests, in short, someone who lords their power over others. The management, social psychological, and political science literatures have yielded constructs similar to this notion of petty tyranny, such as the authoritarian personality (Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik, Levinson, & Sanford, 1950), "bureaupathic" individual (Thompson, 1961), and dictator (Rubin, 1987). Recurring themes include close and coercive supervision, an emphasis on authority and status differences, arbitrary actions, severe and punitive treatment of subordinates, and deterrence of subordinates' initiative and dissent. These themes suggest a tendency to overcontrol others and to treat them in an arbitrary, uncaring, and punitive manner. However, these literatures tend to be anecdotal and impressionistic. In an attempt to provide a more coherent framework for this eclectic literature and a basis for survey research, I recently developed a model of petty tyranny in organizations (Ashforth, 1994). As reproduced in Figure 1, the model: (a) described petty tyranny in specific behavioural terms, (b) proposed a set of antecedents of tyranny in organizations, and (c) proposed a set of effects that tyrannical management has on subordinates. Consistent with the themes noted above, empirical work summarized in Ashforth (1994) (see "Measures," below, for more detail) suggests that the construct of petty tyranny is comprised of six major sets of behaviours: (a) arbitrariness and self-aggrandizement (e.g., "Uses authority or position for personal gain," "Administers organizational policies unfairly"), (b) belittling subordinates (e.g., "Belittles or embarrasses subordinates," "Criticizes subordinates in front of others"), (c) lack of consideration (e.g., "Is friendly and approachable" [reversed], "Looks out for the personal welfare of group members" [reversed]), (d) a forcing style of conflict resolution (e. …

Ethical Values of Transactional and Transformational Leaders

Abstract: Ethical leadership literature (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999; Kanungo & Mendonca, 1996) suggests that authentic transformational leadership must be based on some moral foundation. Such literature is not as clear, however, on whether transactional leadership can have moral foundation as well. The paper argues that transformational and transactional leadership behaviours are judged to be ethical based on two different sets of values, motives, and assumptions. These values, motives, and assumptions are grounded in two types of ethical perspective for understanding the behaviour of the two types of leaders. Transformational leaders have an organic worldview and moral altruistic motives grounded in a deontological perspective. Transactional leaders, on the other hand, have an atomistic worldview and mutual altruistic motives grounded in a teleological perspective. Resume La litterature sur le leadership ethique (Bass & Steidlmeier, 1999; Kanungo & Mendonca, 1996) suggere que le leadership transformationnel authentique doit etre base sur des fondements moraux quelconques. Par con-tre, la litterature ne precise pas si le leadership trans-actionnel doit aussi avoir des fondements moraux. Cette etude demontre que les comportements de leadership transformationnels ainsi que transactionnels sont juges comme etant bases sur deux differents groupes de valeurs, motifs et suppositions en ce qui attrait a l'ethique. Ces valeurs, motifs et suppositions sont fondes sur deux types de perspectives ethiques defacon a com-prendre le comportement des deux types de leaders. Les leaders transformationnels out une perception orga-nique du monde ainsi que des motifs moraux altruistes bases sur une perspective deontologique. A l'oppose, les leaders transactionnels ont une perception atomiste du monde et des motifs mutuels bases sur une perspective teleologique.

A Meta‐Analysis to Review Organizational Outcomes Related to Charismatic Leadership

Abstract: This study applied meta-analysis to assess the relationship between charismatic leadership style and leadership effectiveness, subordinate performance, subordinate satisfaction, subordinate effort, and subordinate commitment. Results indicate that the relationship between leader charisma and leader effectiveness is much weaker than reported in the published literature when leader effectiveness is measured at the individual level of analysis and when common method variance is controlled. Results also indicate a smaller relationship between charismatic leadership and subordinate performance when subordinate performance is measured at the individual level (r = 0.31) than when it is measured at the group level (r = 0.49 and robust across studies). These results suggest that charismatic leadership is more effective at increasing group performance than at increasing individual performance. Other moderators tested did not account for a significant portion of variance in the observed distribution of correlations, suggesting a need for further research into other potential moderators. Meta-analysis examining the effects of charismatic leadership on subordinate effort and job satisfaction revealed lower correlations when multiple methods of measurement were used, with little convergence toward stable population estimates. Resume La meta-analyse a servi a evaluer le rapport entre le style de leadership charismatique et l'efficacite d'un tel style de leadership ainsi que le rendement, la satisfaction, l'effort et l'engagement des subalternes. Les resul-tats obtenus indiquent que le rapport entre le charisme et l'efficacite du leader est beaucoup plusfaible que le pro-posent les textes publies a ce sujet lorsque l'efficacite du leader est mesuree au niveau individuel et lorsque la variance de la methode commune est controlee. Les resultats obtenus revelent egalement un rapport moindre entre le leadership charismatique et le rendement des subalternes lorsque ce rendement est mesure au niveau individuel (r = 0.31) qu'au niveau du groupe (r = 0,49 et notable parmi toutes les etudes passees en revue). Ces resultats suggerent qu'un leadership charismatique con-tribue davantage a accroitre le rendement du groupe que le rendement individuel. Les autres moderateurs mis a l'essai ne represented pas une portion significative de la variance dans la distribution des correlations observees, ce qui laisser suggerer qu'une autre recherche serait necessaire pour verifier d'autres moderateurs potentiels. La meta-analyse qui etudie l'incidence du leadership charismatique sur l'effort des subalternes et la satisfaction professionnelle demontre des correlations moins marquees, lorsque des methodes de mesure multiples one ete utilisees, de měme qu'une convergence minime a l'egard des estimations de population stable.

Critical Success Factors of CRM Technological Initiatives

Abstract: As an increasing number of organizations realize the importance of becoming more customer-centric in today's competitive economy, they are also discovering that they must deliver authentic customer knowledge across multiple organizational functions and at all customer touch points. This paper compiles the critical success factors of customer relationship management (CRM) technological initiatives realized by 57 large organizations in Canada. The data analysis is performed using structural equation modeling techniques such as PLS. Resume Evoluant dans une economie fort competitive, un nombre croissant d'organisations realisent l'importance de mieux comprendre leurs clients. Elles decouvrent alors qu'elles peuvent gerer les connaissances acquises a leur sujet lors des contacts pris avec eux, et les integrer adequatement aux multiples fonctions organisationnelles. Cet article relate les facteurs critiques de succes necessaires lors de l'implantation d'initiatives technologiques supportant la gestion de la relation client (GRC). L'analyse des resultats obtenus aupres de 57 grandes organisations canadiennes est realisee en testant plusieurs equations structurelles a l'aide de la methode des moindres carres partiels (PLS).

A Content Analysis of Risk Management Disclosures in Canadian Annual Reports

Abstract: This research paper examines risk information disclosures in Canadian annual reports to provide insights into the current risk disclosure environment, its characteristics, and the analytical usefulness of the information disclosed to the firm's stakeholders. Following a content analysis, the authors describe and then analyze in greater detail the subject matter of risk disclosures of TSE 300 Canadian companies by summarizing and classifying disclosed risk-related information. Results show a high degree of risk disclosure intensity reflecting both mandatory and voluntary risk management disclosures. However, the analytical power of such disclosures, as captured by the risk assessment analysis, appears to lack uniformity, clarity, and quantification, thus potentially limiting their usefulness. The authors conclude that more formalized and comprehensive risk disclosures might be desirable in the future to effectively reduce information asymmetries between management and stakeholders. Resume La presente etude analyse les divulgations d'informations sur le risque dans les rapports annuels canadiens. Elle se propose de jeter une lumiere sur l'environnement actuel de divulgation des risques, ses caracteristiques, et l'utilite analytique des informations divulguees pour les acteurs de l'industrie canadienne. Grâce a la methode de l'analyse du contenu, les auteurs decrivent puis analysent de faĉon plus detaillee le contenu actuel des divulgations d'informations sur le risque des entreprises du TSE 300. Ils y parviennent en synthetisant et en categorisant les informations divulguees. Les resultats montrent que les divulgations se font a une frequence assez elevee, consecutive aux divulgations obligatoires et volontaires de gestion des risques. Cependant, vu la maniere dont l'analyse d'evaluation des risques divulgue ces informations, leur pouvoir analytique semble manquer d'homogeneite, de clarte, et de quantification, ce qui limite potentiellement leur utilite. Les auteurs concluent qu'a l'avenir, les divulgations de risques gagneraient a etre plus formalisees et plus completes. Ceci permettrait de reduire l'asymetrie des informations entre les gestionnaires des risques et les investisseurs.

Buyer-Seller Relationships: Bonds, Relationship Management, and Sex-Type

Abstract: Although a key objective of relationship marketing is building strong bonds with customers, there is little empirical research into the antecedents and consequents of relational bonds. Women are increasingly assuming key boundary-spanning roles in organizations, and understanding the extent to which sex differences affect relationship processes and outcomes is an important management issue. This study develops hypotheses linking relationship quality, relational bonds, facets of relationship management, and biological sex, and tests them in the context of buyer-supplier relationships. Social bonds and the relationship-management facets of communication/cooperation and relationship investment were found to be key predictors of relationship quality. Communication/cooperation, relationship investment and relationalism were found to predict social bonds, while relationship investment and relationalism were found to predict functional and structural bonds. Relationship type (male-male, male-female, female-- male, and female-female) was found to have some effect on relationship quality and relational bonds. Post hoc analysis found significant interaction effects between the type of relationship and facets of relationship management. The management of buyer-seller relationships is recognized as being integral to business success (Wilson, 1995) and can provide a key source of competitive advantage (Day & Wensley, 1983). While there are several views about the nature and scope of relationship marketing (Nevin, 1995), one core objective is to build strong bonds with customers (Cravens, 1995). Interestingly, the antecedents and consequents of relational bonds remain relatively unexplored (cf. Han, 1992; Mummalaneni & Wilson, 1991). Recent work by Palmer and Bejou (1995) and Smith and Bejou (1995) suggests that biological sex and/or socialized gender role may have a bearing on working relationships, processes, and outcomes. Although equivocal, research on interpersonal and work relationships suggests that men and women differ, at least in degree, in their relationship management styles, approaches, and values (e.g., Keys, 1985; Riger & Gilligan, 1980; Statham, 1987). These are thought to place a strain on coworker interaction (Devine & Markiewicz, 1990). It is not clear, however, to what extent, if any, sex differences are manifest in the management of buyer-seller relationships. This issue is particularly important since women have increasingly been assuming key management and boundary-spanning roles in organizations over the past two decades (Foster & Orser, 1994), and men and women may have different training requirements to be effective relationship managers. This study investigates the role of relational bonds in the development of quality working relationships. The effects of biological sex on relationship management, relational bonds, and relationship quality are also explored. Background Relationship marketing has been such a dominant, yet undefined, paradigm over the past 10 years that it is difficult to distinguish from marketing, as classically defined (Iacobucci, 1994). This has led to the paradox where considerable research has been conducted on service, consumer, channel, partner, and business-to-business relationships (cf. the special issue of the Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 1995), yet relationship marketing is considered to be in the very early stages of its development (Sheth & Parvatiyar, 1995). Reflective of its early development relationship marketing research has been plagued by a variety of conceptual and methodological issues. There is little agreement on the definition of concepts, how they should be operationalized, or what labels should be attached to them (Wilson, 1995). This has led to the situation where the meanings of many of the concepts deployed in the literature overlap. An unresolved methodological issue is who can or should inform the researcher on the nature, characteristics, and dynamics of the relationship, its parties, their interaction, and their environment. …

E-Government and E-Governance: The Future Isn't What It Used To Be

Abstract: Public sector organizations in North America and Europe are gradually transforming themselves under the pressure exerted by Internet technologies. Most of these organizations are beyond Web publishing and are passing through the interactive stage, gradually sidling up to the challenges of creating end-to-end processes that deliver enhanced value from public administration. In the not-too-distant future, these organizations will have to manage increased speed of reflexivity in their relationship with the citizenry. In other words, it is not just a question of e-government; it is also a question of e-governance. The future of government as we might have imagined it 10 years ago is not the future of government today. Our paper proposes a two-dimensional framework for considering the impact of the Internet. On one axis, we propose the dimension of e-government versus e-governance. On the other dimension, we contrast the citizen-centric view of the relationship with the organization-centric. In each of the resulting four quadrants of the model, we examine the issues and considerations. Finally, we analyze the resource allocation decisions made public by the federal government to identify where the financial commitments have been made in the context of the model. Resume Les organisations du secteur public de l'Amerique du Nord et de l'Europe se transforment progressivement sous la pression des technologies de l'Internet. La plupart de ces organisations, qui ont deja depasse l'etape de la creation des pages, passent par une phase interactive, relevant progressivement les defis de la creation des processus de bout en bout qui donne une plus grande valeur a l'administration publique. Dans un futur proche, ces organisations auront a gerer, dans leur relation avec les citoyens, la vitesse croissante de reflexivite. En d'autres termes, il ne s'agit pas seulement d'une question de gouvernement electronique; il s'agit aussi d'une question de gouvernance electronique. L'avenir du gouvernement d'aujourd'hui est different de celui qu'on aurait imagine il y a de cela 10 ans. Dans cette etude, nous proposons un cadre bidimensionnel permettant de mesurer l'impact de l'Internet. Sur le premier axe, nous proposons la dimension gouvernement electronique vs gouvernance electronique. Le second axe s'appesantit sur le contraste entre deux conceptions antinomiques de la relation: la conception centree sur le citoyen et la conception centree sur l'organisation. Dans chacun des quatre quadrants resultant du modele, nous examinons les problemes et les solutions possibles. Pour etudier dans quel cas les engagements financiers ont ete pris dans le contexte du modele, nous cloturons notre etude par l'analyse des decisions d'attribution des ressources rendues publiques par le gouvernement federal.

Individual and Situational Factors Influencing Negative Word‐of‐Mouth Behaviour

Abstract: Negative word-of-mouth is one form of consumer response to dissatisfaction that has received Utile attention from business firms, yet it is a silent and potent force that is capable of wreaking havoc on a firrn's bottomline. This study examines the influence of some individual and situational factors affecting negative word-ofmouth behaviour. The results reveal that product involvement, purchase decision involvement, self-confidence, perceived worthiness of complaining, and proximity of others ajfect negative word-of-mouth behaviour in both Singapore and Canada. Two additional factors, attitudes towards business in generai and the perceived reputation of the firrn, affect negative word-of-mouth behaviour in the Singapore sample, while an additional factor, sociability, affects negative word-of-mouth behaviour in the Canadian sample. Resume Le bouche a oreille negatif est une forme de reponse des consommateurs a leur propre insatisfaction qui a recu peu d'attention de la part des entreprises, et qui cependant, represente une force silencieuse et puissante, capable de nuire aux succes de l'entreprise. Cette etude examine l'influence de facteurs individuels et situationnels sur les comportements de bouche a oreille negatif. Les resultats revelent que le degre de contact avec le produit, le degre d'implication dans la decision d'achat, la confiance en soi, la perception qu'a le consommateur du suivi donne a une eventuelle plainte, et l'influence d'autrui affectent les comportements de bouche a oreille negatif, aussi bien a Singapour qu'au Canada. Deux facteurs supplementaires, l'attitude vis-a-vis du monde des affaires en general et la reputation de l'entreprise, affectent le bouche a oreille negatif dans l'echantillon singapourien, alors qu'un facteur supplementaire, la sociabilite, influence le bouche a oreille negatif dans l'echantillon canadien.

Integrating Leadership Styles and Ethical Perspectives

Abstract: This paper reviews two major ethical theories and the manner in which the values they espouse are associated with the directive, transactional, and transformational leadership styles A model of ethical leadership is proposed which relates the dimensions of these styles to the level of the leader's moral development Transformational leadership appears to be most closely connected to deontology, while transactional leadership would seem to be related more to teleological ethics, and directive leadership to ethical egoism, a category of teleology The paper concludes with some suggestions for future research Resume Cette etude passe en revue deux theories principales d'ethiques et la facon dont les valeurs qu'elles compren-nent sont liees aux styles de leadership directif, transac-tionnel, et transformationnel L'auteur presente un mo-dele de leadership ethique dans lequel les dimensions de ces styles sont associees au niveau de developpement moral du leader Le leadership transformationnel semble etre lie plus etroitement a la deontologie tandis que le leadership transactionnel serait associe plutot a l'ethique teleologique et le leadership directif a l'ego-isnie ethique, une categorie de la teleologie L'etude se termine par quelques suggestions de recherches ulterieures

Service Problems and Recovery Stratégies: An Experiment

Abstract: This experiment examines the effectiveness of recovery strategies after a service failure on customer loyalty and complaint intentions. Respondents encountered different core failures in terms of problem severity (denial or delay) and criticality levels (high or low). The results suggest the effectiveness of service recovery strategiesassistance (fixing the problem) and/or compensation (defraying the costs incurred)varied depending on the type of service, problem severity, and criticality levels. The implication is that recovery strategies need to be matched to the specific incident. Service firms should focus on avoiding or reducing core failures. Getting it right the first time is the best strategy. Resume La presente recherche examine au moyen dune experience l'efficacite de differentes strategies de recuperation sur la fidelite et les intentions de porter plainte de la clientele a la suite dune defaillance de service. Les participants ont ete confrontes d differences defaillances de service en termes de gravite (interruption du service ou delai) et de niveau critique (eleve ou faible). Les resultats indiquent que l'efficacite des strategies de recuperation-aide technique (resolution du probleme) et/ou compensation financiere (defraiement des coats encourus)-varie en fonction du genre de service, de la gravite du probleme et des niveaux critiques. Les resultats de l'etude laissent supposer que les strategies de recuperation doivent etre associees a un incident specifique. Les entreprises de services doivent mettre l'accent sur 1'evitement ou la reduction des defaillances. La meilleure strategie consiste encore a donner le service correctement. Increased customer loyalty is a critical driver of a firm's long-term financial performance (Jones & Sasser, 1995). Customer dissatisfaction reduces loyalty and erodes the firm's reputation. A major cause of dissatisfaction is unsatisfactory problem resolution (Hart, Heskett, & Sasser, 1990) and up to 50% of customers who experience problems are not satisfied with the recovery strategy (Best & Andreasen, 1976; Zeithaml, Berry, & Parasuraman, 1990). When customers experience a problem with a service provider, they may respond by switching to a new supplier (exit), attempting to remedy the problem by complaining (voice), or staying with the supplier anticipating that "things will get better" (loyalty) (Hirschman, 1970). They may also talk to other consumers about the experience, and this negative word of mouth can also influence a firm's profits and reputation (Richins, 1987; Singh, 1990; Singh & Wilkes, 1996). It is thus important for the firm to develop a recovery strategy to respond to service problems. Interestingly, in spite of the importance of service recovery, according to Kelley and Davis, "a dearth of empirical research confines any theoretical discussion to anecdotal reports" (1994, p. 52). The objective of this paper is to provide empirical evidence on the effects on customers' future intentions toward the provider of different recovery strategies after a service failure (Figure 1). Using hospitality industry scenarios, subjects were presented with a new purchase situation where the provider's quality was known only by reputation. Purchase decisions varied according to the importance of the purchase to the consumer. Purchase outcomes included service failures where service was either denied or delayed. The service provider offered the following recovery strategies: (a) apology only, (b) apology and assistance, (c) apology and compensation, or (d) apology, assistance, and compensation. Subjects' intentions toward the provider were measured, including their propensity to voice their dissatisfaction and the likelihood that they would continue to do business with the provider. The study provides insight into the threats to the loyalty-building process and an opportunity to determine the value of a contingency approach in designing a service recovery strategy. …

Determinants of Commitment and Opportunism: Integrating and Extending Insights from Transaction Cost Analysis and Relational Exchange Theory

Abstract: Effectively governed relationships are characterized by high levels of commitment and low levels of opportunism. In this research, we develop a conceptual model that integrates insights from transaction cost analysis and relational exchange theory to identify three key antecedents of commitment and opportunism: transaction specific assets, environmental uncertainty, and relational norms. Our model extends these prior frameworks by identifing dependence and long-term orientation as the mediating processes through which the antecedents affect the outcomes. We test the model using a scenariobased experimental method with 168 purchasing managers as subjects. Results provide substantial support for the model. The managerial, theoretical, and future research implications of these results are discussed. Resume Des relations menees efficacement se caracterisent par leur haut niveau d'engagement et leur faible niveau d'opportunisme. Dans la presente recherche, nous etablissons un modele conceptuel qui integre les notions d'Analyse du coat des operations et de Theorie des echanges relationnels afin d'identifier les trois antecedents clis de l'engagement et de l'opportunisme : les actifs specifiques de la transaction, l'insicurite de l'environnement et les normes relationnelles. Notre modele elargit ce premier cadre en identifiant la dependance et l'orientation a long terme comme procede de mediation par lequel les antecedents influent sur les resultats. Nous examinons le modele grace a une methode experimentale que se fonde sur le scenario en prenant comme sujets 168 responsables des achats. Les resultats apportent un rM appi au modele. Nous discutons aussi, a partir des resultats, des consequences sur la gestion, la theorie et les futures recherches. Conventional governance theory predicts that exchange transactions will be governed using one of two governance mechanisms: markets or hierarchies (Williamson, 1975). Contrary to this prediction, the contemporary reality of governance is that a number of governance mechanisms that are "neither markets nor hierarchies" are flourishing (Powell, 1990). This discrepancy between conventional governance theory and contemporary reality has regenerated research interest in the issue of how exchange relationships are managed (Heide, 1994; Robicheaux & Coleman, 1994; Williamson, 1985). Although originally depicted as the sole alternatives to governing exchanges, spot market transactions (markets) and full vertical integration (hierarchies) are now generally regarded as being the polar ends of a continuum of governance options (Williamson, 1985). The many new governance mechanisms found in contemporary practice are regarded as being intermediate to markets and hierarchies (Powell, 1990; Williamson, 1985) and have been described by a plethora of terms, including strategic alliances, joint ventures, joint action relationships, value-added partnerships, working partnerships, franchise arrangements, relational exchanges, research consortia, and networks (Achrol, 1991; Anderson & Narus, 1990; Dwyer, Schurr, & Oh, 1987; Heide & John, 1990; Johnston & Lawrence, 1988; Powell, 1990; Ring & Van de Ven, 1992; Webster, 1992). As these new types of governance mechanisms have emerged and spread throughout the industrial landscape, they have motivated theorists to adapt prior frameworks (Joshi, 1995) and develop new ones (Ring & Van de Ven, 1992, 1994) to account for these phenomena. While there are significant differences amoung these new types of governance mechanisms (Joshi, 1995; Webster, 1992), there are also noteworthy underlying commonalities. In particular, these new governance mechanisms require exchange partners to be committed to each other and refrain from behaving opportunistically against each other (Anderson & Weitz, 1992; Dwyer et at., 1987; Gundlach, Achrol, & Mentzer, 1995; Morgan & Hunt, 1994). …

A Model for the Value of Intellectual Capital

Abstract: We propose and provide empirical support for a model of intellectual capital that, along with their subfactors and measurement indicators, includes the following three key factors: human capital, structural capital, and relational capital. Our model is offered as a useful tool to managers for assessing various aspects of intellectual capital within their organizations, with the view of identifying areas in most need of resources. It also serves as a prototype for gauging the overall intellectual capital of a firm. Resume Dans cette etude, nous proposons une base empirique pour un modele du capital intellectuel qui, avec leurs sous-facteurs et leurs indicateurs de mesure. comprend les trois facteurs principaux suivants: le capital humain, le capital structural, et le capital relationnel. Notre modele peut aider les gestionnaires a evaluer les differents aspects du capital intellectuel de leurs entreprises dans le but de determiner les domaines necessitant des ressources. Ce modele peut egalement servir de prototype pour estimer le capital intellectuel total d'une entreprise.

Gender fatigue: The ideological dilemma of gender neutrality and discrimination in organizations

Abstract: Although gender discrimination remains a feature of working life in many contexts, research on gender in organizations has shown that workplaces are often constructed as gender neutral. This poses an ideological dilemma for workers: how can they make sense of gender discrimination at work while presenting their workplace as gender neutral? This article explores that dilemma through an analysis of how information communication technology (ICT) workers talk about gender discrimination. Instead of denying gender discrimination, workers acknowledge it can happen but construct it as singular events that happened in the past and they place the onus on women to overcome such obstacles. Navigating the ideological dilemma around gender neutrality and discrimination, interviewees display what the article characterizes as gender fatigue. Copyright © 2009 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Preparing for Ethical Leadership in Organizations

Abstract: True and effective leadership is that in which the leader's behaviour and the exercise of the leadership influence process are consistent with ethical and moral values. This paper explores the need for ethical leadership and the ways in which it is manifested in organizations. It identifies the three components of the ethical leadership model proposed by Kanungo and Mendonca (1996): the ethics of the leader's motives, influence process strategies, and the nature of the self-transformation needed for ethical leadership. As a central theme, the paper then examines what the leader can do to prepare for ethical leadership in organizations. More specifically, it identifies some of the sources that the leader can tap to develop as a moral person possessed of inner strength and resourcefulness that lead to the self-transformation of both the leader and the followers. Resume Le leadership veritable et efficace en est un dans lequel le comportement du leader et l'exercice du processus d'influence de leadership sont consistants avec des valeurs morales et ethiques. Cette etude explore le besoin d'un leadership ethique et les facons dont il est manifeste dans les organisations. Elle identifie les trois composantes du modele de leadership ethique propose par Kanungo et Mendonca (1996): l'ethique des motifs du leader, les strategies du processus d'influence et la nature de la transformation de soi-meme requises pour le leadership ethique. Comme theme central, l'etude examine ce que le leader peutfaire pour se preparer au leadership ethique dans les organisations. Specifiquement, elle identifie quelques-unes des sources auxquelles le leader peut avoir acces pour se developper en tant que personne morale possedant une force interieure et qui est pleine de ressources qui menent a la transformation personnelle du leader et de ses adeptes.

Reshaping Public Sector Accounting: An International Comparative View

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to study the governmental accounting transformations carried out in 16 member countries of the Organization for Economic Coordination and Development (OECD) and the European Community, taking the International Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSAS) as a benchmark. To carry out the study we have used the de facto information disclosed by central government financial reports. The study shows that between the extremes of cash and full accrual accounting the countries studied have put numerous intermediate variants into practice. Accrual accounting developments seem more related to New Public Management (NPM) initiatives than to the cultural categories studied. Resume L'objectif de cet article est d'etudier les transformations effectuees dans la comptabilite publique dans 16 pays de I'OCDE (Organisation de cooperation et de developpement economiques) et des Communautes europeennes en prenant comme reference I'International Public Sector Accounting Standards (IPSAS). Pour mener a bien I'etude, nous avons employe I'information de fait revelee par les rapports financiers du gouvernement central. L'etude prouve qu'entre la methode de la comptabilite de caisse et la comptabilite d'exercice pour toutes les operations, les pays etudies ont mis en place de nom-breuses variantes intermediaires. Les developpements de la comptabilite en creances et dettes semblent etre plus en relation avec les initiatives du New Public Management (NPM) qu'avec les categories culturelles etudiees.

Measuring Charisma: Dimensionality and Validity of the Conger-Kanungo Scale of Charismatic Leadership

Abstract: As part of an ongoing research program on charismatic leadership, Conger and Kanungo (1994) developed and tested a questionnaire to measure the perceived behavioural dimensions of charismatic leadership as proposed in their model (1987, 1988) This article reports on further analyses of the dimensionality and validity of the Conger-Kanungo-scale It begins with a reanalysis of the data from the 1994 study It then reports on three separate studies conducted in the United States using managers (N=W3), in Canada using political party delegates (N=71), and in India using clerical staff (N=98), to examine convergent and discriminant validity The results of the dimensionality analyses suggest a five-factor model consistent with the Weberian notion of charismatic leadership The results of the US, Canadian, and Indian studies provide further evidence that the Conger-Kanungo scale has acceptable reliability and validity as a diagnostic tool in diverse contexts Resume Dans le cadre d'un programme de recherche en cours sur le leadership charismatique, Conger et Kanungo (1994) ont congu et teste un questionnaire pour mesurer les dimensions comportementales du leadership charismatique percues telles que proposees dans leur modele (1987, 1988) Cette communication rend compte d'autres analyses de la dimensionalite et de la validite de I'echelle de Conger-Kanungo En commencant par une nouvelle analyse des donnees provenant de I'etude de 1994, cette communication rend compte egalement de trois etudes distinctes, I'une menee aux etats-Unis aupres de gestionnaires (N=103), une autre au Canada aupres de delegues de partis politiques (N=71) et la troisieme en Inde aupres d'employes de bureau (N-98), en vue d'examiner la validite concourante et la validite discriminante d'unefonction Les resultats des analyses de dimensionalite suggerent un modele a cinq facteurs cadrant avec la notion Weberienne du leadership charismatique Les etudes menees aux etats-Unis, au Canada et en Inde confirment que I'echelle de Conger-Kanungo en tant qu'instrument diagnostique a un degre de fiabi-lite et de validite acceptable dans divers contextes

Mediating, Interactive, and Non-linear Effects in Service Quality and Satisfaction with Services Research

Abstract: This study examines a number of different hypotheses about the relationship between service quality and satisfaction with services and some important loyalty-related consequences of these constructs. The study confirms the general position in the service quality literature that satisfaction mediates the relationship between service quality and switching intentions, advocacy intentions, and willingness to pay more for the service. In particular, satisfaction is a strong mediator of the effects of service quality on customer retention. The study also finds good support for the existence of a non-linear relationship between satisfaction and these loyalty intentions. The nature of this non-linear relationship is such that the effect of satisfaction on these loyalty-related intentions is more positive at higher levels of satisfaction than it is at lower levels of satisfaction. This is consistent with emerging findings on the nature and consequences of customer delight. Resume Cette etude examine un certain nombre de differentes hypotheses concernant le rapport entre la qualite de service et la satisfaction des clients, et passe en revue quelques consequences importantes des ces hypotheses qui illuminent la loyaute des consommateurs envers produits et services. L'etude confirme la validite de la theorie dominante de la qualite de service, a savoir que la satisfaction reglemente le rapport entre la qualite de service et l'intention de commuter de service, comme entre la propensite de recommander un produit ou service et la volonte de supporter un prix plus eleve pour le meme service. En particulier, la satisfaction regit les standards de la qualite de service et la retention de la clientele. L'etude confirme egalement l'existence d'un rapport non-lineaire entre la satisfaction et la fidelite. Ce rapport indique que l'effet de la satisfaction sur la fidelite est proportionellement plus fort a des niveaux de satisfaction plus eleve qu'a des niveaux plus bas. Cette tendance par ailleurs est conforme a d'autres etudes recentes sur la nature et les consequences de la satisfaction des clients.

Cultural Differences in Environmental Knowledge, Attitudes, and Behaviours of Canadian Consumers

Abstract: The past few decades have been undoubtedly characterized by rapid globalization and increased concerns about environmental problems. This research investigates the influence of culture on pro-environmental knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours of Canadian consumers. Results indicate that French-Canadians, as opposed to their English counterparts, (a) are more knowledgeable and concerned about ecological issues, (b) perceive that it is important to behave in an environmentally friendly fashion, (c) believe that most corporations are acting responsibly toward the environment, and (d) consider environmental issues to a greater extent when making a purchase. However, English-Canadians are more likely to recycle and are more willing to pay a premium price for ecologically compatible products. Cross-cultural disparities were also found with respect to the classic “knowledge-attitude-behaviour” model. Implications for marketers and policy-makers as well as opportunities for future research are discussed. Resume Les dernieres decennies furent caracterisees par une globalisation rapide des marches et par une preoccupation grandissante de la part de la population face aux problemes ecologiques. Cette recherche examine les differences culturelles des Canadiens relativement a leurs connaissances, leurs attitudes et leurs comportements pro-environnementaux. Les resultats indiquent que les Canadiens-francais, comparativement a leurs homologues Anglais, (a) sont plus informes et preoccupes par les problemes ecologiques, (b) percoivent davantage qu'il est important de se comporter de facon a proteger l'environnement, (c) croient que les entreprises agissent de maniere responsable face a l'environnement, et (d) considerent davantage les repercussions ecologiques lorsqu'ils effectuent un achat. Toutefois, les Canadiensanglais sont plus enclins a recycler et sont prets a payer un prix plus eleve pour des produits compatibles avec l'environnement. Des differences culturelles ont egalement ete observees relativement au modele classique connaissance-attitude-comportement. Des recommandations strategiques et des voies de recherche interessantes sont proposees.

Opting for Growth: Gender Dimensions of Choosing Enterprise Development

Abstract: This study documents how owners of small businesses arrive at growth objectives for their firms. The decision to pursue (or not) a growth objective involves trade-offs among both financial and non-financial factors. Owners' growth decisions appear to be shaped by attitudes towards owners' perceived outcomes of growth and the opinions (about growth) of important others in the owners' lives. Male and female owners exhibit strong similarities in how they arrive at growth decisions. However, female business owners appear to accord relatively more weight to their needs for a supportive managerial and spousal setting and to be discouraged to a relatively greater degree by the growth-related stress associated with personal demands made on their time and family. Resume Cette etude documente la facon dont les proprietaires de petites entreprises formulent des objectifs d'expansion pour leur firme. La decision de suivre (ou de ne pas suivre) un plan donne comprend des facteurs financiers et non-financiers. Les decisions d'expansion que prennent les proprietaires semblent dictees par les attitudes et la perception qu'ils ont au sujet de la croissance de leur propre entreprise. Elles sont aussi dictees par les opinions des personnes que les proprietaires ont en estime. Il existe de grandes similarites entre la facon dont les hommes proprietaires d'entreprise et les femmes proprietaires d'entreprise arrivent aux decisions concernant la croissance de leur entreprise. Mais, les proprietaires femmes semblent avoir relativement plus besoin d'une situation directoriale et familiale stimulante et sont decouragees a un niveau relativement plus eleve par le stress lie a la croissance et les exigences faites sur leur temps et leur famille.

Attributes of social and human capital disclosure and information asymmetry between managers and investors

Abstract: We extend the literature on voluntary disclosure by investigating the impact of precision attribute of social and human capital disclosure on information asymmetry. We provide evidence on how the stock market reacts to different levels of information precision. Overall, results suggest that quantitative disclosure reduces share price volatility and increases Tobin's Q. As expected, firm size attenuates the impact of precision attribute of disclosure on information asymmetry. Furthermore, it appears that firms take into account ultimate costs and benefits to shareholders when determining precision attribute of their disclosure. Finally, our results suggest that efficient governance leads to more disclosure. Copyright © 2009 ASAC. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Perceptions About the Extent of Succession Planning in Canadian Family Firms

Abstract: Despite exhortations about the importance of succession planning for the family firm, many believe that family firms continue to leave succession planning to chance. This study shows that family members have different opinions about whether their family firms engaged in succession planning. The incumbents believe that they did while the other family members, including the successors, believe that they did not. We also present results showing that two factors with which the family business succession literature is most concerned—an incumbent ready to step aside and the presence of a competent successor—may influence the extent to which the Canadian family firm engages in succession planning. Resume Malgre les consignes concernant l'importance de plani-fier la succession d'une compagnie familiale, beaucoup d'entre nous croient que ces m4iCme famille different d'opinion a savoir si la compagnie s'est, oui ou non, engagee dans un processus de planification de la succession. Ceux et celles en place croient qu'ils l'ont fait quand les autres membres de lafamilee, incluant les suc-cesseurs, croient le contraire. Nous presentons aussi des donnees qui demontrent que les deuxfacteurs qui preoc-cupent la literature dans le domaine—une personne en place prete a ceder sa place et la presence d'un suc-cesseur competent—peuvent influencer le degre d'engagement de la compagnie familiale canadienne au processus de planification de la succession.

The Origins of Self-Employment in Ethno-cultural Communities: Distinguishing Between Orthodox Entrepreneurship and Reactionary Enterprise

Abstract: This article identifies the specific explanatory variables of self-employment prevalent among ethnocultural groups. An interdisciplinary literature review results in the identification of several schools of thought suggesting four spheres of influence: the individual or self, the ethnocultural environment, the circumstances in society, and a combination of these. A conceptual framework is then developed, identifying two types of self-employment, orthodox entrepreneurship and reactive selfemployment. A model links different ethnocultural communities (from empirical studies in the literature) to the explanatory variables relative to specific ethnocultural groups. The issue of immigration policy is a recurring one in national debates around the world, and an understanding of ethnocultural communities and enterprises has important policy implications. Given that entrepreneurship is beneficial to a country, some governments have been eager to attract immigrant entrepreneurs. A problem arises, however, as immigrant groups are seldom understood, and their culture, values, motivations, aspirations, and business and ethnic networks are even less so. (In fact, knowledge about the cultural distinctions of nonimmigrants is also lacking.) Government statistics reveal considerable disparities among the rates of self-employment of different ethnocultural communities (Dana, 1991; Waldinger & Aldrich, 1990). It would be useful, therefore, to develop an understanding of the forces which result in high rates of self-employment within various ethnic groups. By understanding the explanatory variables linked to the entrepreneurial decision, it may eventually be possible to encourage an increase in selfemployment rates. The objective of this article is to develop a framework to facilitate the understanding of the macrosocietal forces encouraging ethnic enterprise. For the purpose of this paper, ethnic enterprise or ethnic business shall be taken to mean an undertaking by one or more persons self-identifying as being different than the mainstream society in which they reside, by virtue of belonging to a distinct group or a hybrid thereof, either by birth or by conditioning. Although many ethnic businesses are owned by immigrants, being an immigrant is not a necessary condition for owning an ethnic enterprise. The Samis of Lapland, for example, are an ethnoculturally distinct group within the Nordic countries, without being immigrants. The paper begins with a review of entrepreneurship literature, presented according to focus. Figure 1 illustrates the corresponding elementary variables. A sampling of studies is classified in Figure 2, according to relevant explanatory variable(s). Figure 3 illustrates the discussion about forces influencing self-employment. As demonstrated in Table 1, some explanatory variables are more relevant to some ethnocultural groups than to others. Figure 4 serves as a framework to classify samples according to relevant macrosocietal explanatory variables. Towards a Theory of Ethnic Enterprise A common finding is that ethnic enterprise is often overrepresented in the small business sector, i.e., members of some ethnocultural groups typically have a higher rate of business formation and ownership than do others. It is also well established that while a high rate of self-employment is a consistent characteristic of some ethnic communities around the world and in contrasting environments, among other groups, entrepreneurs and owner-managers are much less common. Why are some ethnocultural groups more involved than others in selfemployment? How do individuals from ethnocultural communities with nonentrepreneurial cultures engage in entrepreneurial behaviour? Which explanatory variable(s) are relevant to ethnic enterprise in specific ethnocultural communities? Over the years, different explanations have been put forth. To Weber (1956), the explanatory variables were cultural values. …

A Comparison of Native Culture, Non-Native Culture and New Management Ideology

Abstract: Based on a case study of a Native-operated criminal justice organization, this article uses Hofstede's five dimensions of national cultural differences to examine the connections between cultural values and management practices. It concludes that Hofstede's dimensions can provide insights into the differences between Native and non-Native cultures and how Native organizations may draw on traditional cultural values to improve organizational effectiveness. In general, Native cultures are described as collectivist, egalitarian, adaptive, and tolerant. The argument is made that the cultural context in which Native organizations operate is in many ways more compatible with the new management ideology than is the society in which this ideology prevails. With the globalization of product markets and the expansion of economic activity across national borders, crosscultural differences are emerging as a critical factor in the management of organizations. Equally important are cultural differences arising from the diversification of the workforce and emerging cultural identities within national borders. For instance, the cohesiveness and prominence of Aboriginal' groups is increasing as the decolonization process accelerates (Frideres, 1993, p. 20). Self-determination initiatives are leading to, among other things, the development of Aboriginal-operated organizations in a wide variety of profit and nonprofit sectors. Entrepreneurial activity among Canada's Aboriginal people has been increasing as have partnerships and alliances with non-Aboriginal businesses (Thomas, 1996). For Native and non-Native organizations alike, economic self-sufficiency and participation in the global economy are viewed as essential to the goals of selfpreservation and development (Anderson, 1995; Dana, 1996a; Thomas, 1996). On the other hand, among non-Native organizations, traditional Native values are usually perceived as an impediment to economic development and organizational effectiveness. Reluctance to compete, a different orientation toward time, an emphasis on consensus decision making, and putting family needs before business goals are characteristics that are difficult to reconcile with modern capitalism (Anders & Anders, 1986; Dacks, 1983; Dana, 1996b). Historically, it has been assumed that non-Native people2 must teach Native people how to run their own organizations. The First Nations of Canada see things differently. They believe that traditional culture, values, and languages need not be compromised in the process of building a self-sustaining economy and that their core cultural values may actually assist them in making a successful transition toward political and economic autonomy (Anderson, 1995). The literature on the development of indigenous communities tends to support this point of view. A major reason for the failure of many intervention programs is that they do not recognize the validity and effectiveness of existing social and organizational structures (Blunt & Warren, 1996). Basic managerial concepts, generally thought to be Euro-American in origin, are evident in the languages of most indigenous cultures. Local knowledge, structures, and systems, often disregarded by outsiders, can and should be used effectively for planning, organizing, and innovative problem-solving (Warren, Adedokun, & Omolaoye, 1996). In this paper, we go a step further and suggest that the management structures and leadership styles of Native organizations closely resemble those advocated by current management ideology. We begin by reviewing some of the major cultural characteristics of Native societies, using a model for the cross-cultural analysis developed by Hofstede (1980, 1983, 1993). Hofstede (1993, p. 16) acknowledges the applicability of this model to regional or ethnic subcultures within countries. Aboriginal cultures are profoundly different from any other regional culture within a dominant culture, a factor that increased our interest in using this model as a basis for comparison (see, for example, Bopp, Bopp, Brown, & Lane, 1984; Dumont, 1993). …

The Internationalization of Internet-Enabled Entrepreneurial Firms: Evidence from Europe and North America

Abstract: The main focus of this paper is the internationalization strategies of Internet start-ups. Much of the extant literature focuses on the Internet's potential to enable smaller firms to improve their international activities and performance by reducing problems associated with distance, size, and scale. However, there is also growing evidence that many new firms are embracing Internet technologies from the outset and adopting an e-business format to be global from inception. This suggests that the Internet can be employed not simply as a tool to improve international performance, but, in many cases, as a core capability that underpins the firms'overall international strategy. Empirical research, involving a case study methodology and thematic analyses, investigates a cross-national sample of Internet start-ups, and identifies their chosen internationalization pathways firms. We explore the patterns, pace, and drivers of internationalization and the processes involved in order to determine the extent to which the Internet has influenced the firms' international activities, behaviour, and overall strategy. Resume La presente etude se donne comme objectif majeur d'analyser les strategies d'internationalisation de mises en route de l'Internet. En effet, une partie non negligeable de la litterature existante s'appesantit sur la capacite de l'Internet a promouvoir et a ameliorer les activites internationales et la performance des plus petites entreprises, par la reduction des problemes lies a la distance, a la taille et a l'echelle. Pourtant, on constate de plus en plus que plusieurs nouvelles entreprises, dans le but de se mondialiser, embrassent les technologies de l'Internet et adoptent le modele du commerce electronique des leur gestation. Cette situation prouve que l'Internet peut etre utilisee non seulement comme un outil d'amelioration de la performance internationale, mais aussi et dans beaucoup de cas, comme une capacite fondamentale qui sous-tend l'ensemble de la strategie internationale des entreprises. La recherche empirique, qui comporte une methodologie d'etude de cas et des analyses thematiques, se penche sur un echantillon transnational de mises en route de l'Internet et identifie les voies choisies pour l'internationalisation. Nous explorons les modeles, le rythme et les facteurs motivants de l'internationalisation ainsi que les processus impliquees, ce qui nous permet de determiner dans quelle mesure l'Internet influence les activites internationales des entreprises, leur comportement et leur strategie globale.

The Legitimacy of Organizational Downsizing in Canada: An Analysis of Explanatory Media Accounts

Abstract: We track the cognitive legitimation of organizational downsizing over time through an evolution of explanatory accounts in newspaper reports of middle-management layoffs in Canadian companies from January 1988 to December 1994. We advance an integrative typology of accounts and argue that the form and content of accounts capture sense-making activity by the press. We find support for our prediction that the form and content of these accounts changes over time as managerial downsizing is taken for granted as a legitimate business practice. Despite doubts about the effectiveness of management downsizing programs, societal expectations that managers will use efficient, state-of-the-art management techniques to reduce performance gaps have fuelled their rapid and widespread diffusion among organizations in the nineties (Abrahamson, 1996; Evans, 1994; Freeman & Cameron, 1993; McKinley, Sanchez, & Schick, 1995; Mentzer, 1996). The pervasive mode of downsizing thinking emphasizes the atrophy associated with bloated and diseased organizations (Dunford & Palmer, 1995; Osborne, 1995), while encouraging reductions in organizational size through a variety of means (Cameron, Freeman, & Mishra, 1991; Evans, 1994). One of these means is delayering, or the removal of a middle-management layer deemed superfluous because it is not involved in strategic or productive activities (Capelli, 1992; Freeman & Cameron, 1993). In this article, we advance a theory and methodology for studying the legitimation of organizational activities and use our approach to examine the status of delayering as a legitimate organizational practice. Our research goal is to determine the extent to which delayering has evolved into a legitimate means for organizations to become lean, and how such legitimation may be manifest over time. Our theoretical approach emphasizes the human actions in which the legitimation of organizational practices by external agents may be rooted, and thus links micro-level behaviour to macro-level organizational phenomena (Powell, 1991). Our content-analytical methodology provides a focus on the active management of legitimacy (Oliver, 1991; Suchman, 1995) by examining the extent to which different language is used over time to give meaning to organizational practices, thereby constructing a social reality (Abrahamson, 1996; Berger & Luckman, 1966; Scott, 1995). We test our ideas by analyzing the use and content of explanatory accounts in a comprehensive database of newspaper reports of middle-management layoffs by Canadian organizations from January 1, 1988, to December 31, 1994. The Accountability of Conduct One way through which interaction in a social system is regulated and kept intelligible to its members is through the accountability of conduct (Semin & Manstead, 1983). The functioning of a social system relies on a mutual understanding among actors about appropriate forms of behaviour in different social situations and on the consensual definition of an objective, but socially constructed reality (Berger & Luckman, 1966). In this tradition of interpretive social psychology, social actors make sense of their own and others' actions in a particular social situation through reflexive monitoring of the extent to which such behaviours correspond to the expected rules of interaction for that social situation (Semin & Manstead, 1983). Where social actors perceive a behaviour to be in transgression of such rules, an explanatory account of conduct allows for affirmation of a legitimate social identity (Bies, 1987; Elsbach, 1994; Greenberg, 1990). Thus, an account is used as a rhetorical device for demonstrating the appropriateness of behaviour, thereby maintaining the regularity of social life (Abrahamson, 1996; Scott & Lyman, 1970). The language used in an account is considered to be action (Austin, 1961), a social behaviour in pursuit of establishing appropriateness and rationality (Berger & Luckman, 1966). …