Showing papers in "Cartographic Journal in 2016"
TL;DR: Task completion times for the five tested colour distances show that as the colour distances grow larger, the relative differences in task completion times become statistically significant; empirically confirming the intuition that larger colour distances are better for map readability.
Abstract: The primary goal of this study is to empirically analyse the influence of colour distance and font size on map readability. We utilized eye-tracking to complement the classical usability metrics; thus, we studied performance metrics such as effectiveness (i.e. success, accuracy), efficiency (i.e. time to answer, task completion time), and selected eye tracking metrics fixation frequency, fixation duration and scanpath speed as well as conducting an area-of-interest (AOI) analysis to understand the performance and strategy issues that may be influenced by colour distance and font size during map reading. The user experiment was carried out in a controlled laboratory where participants were asked to conduct a visual search task and mark the correct answer with a mouse click on a static map on a computer screen. Collected data was analysed through descriptive and inferential statistics. Task completion times for the five tested colour distances show that as the colour distances grow larger, the relative diff...
66 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a review of recent interrogations of the (Public) Participatory Geographic Information Systems (P)PGIS and Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) approaches, a summary of five prevailing principles in participatory spatial information handling is presented.
Abstract: This paper reviews persistent principles of participation processes. On the basis of a review of recent interrogations of the (Public) Participatory Geographic Information Systems (P)PGIS and Volunteered Geographic Information (VGI) approaches, a summary of five prevailing principles in participatory spatial information handling is presented. We investigate these five principles that are common to (P)PGIS and VGI on the basis of a framework of two dimensions that govern the participatory use of spatial information from the perspective of people and society. This framework is presented as a shared perspective of (P)PGIS and VGI and illustrates that, although both share many of these same principles, the ways in which these principles are approached are highly diverse. The paper ends with a future outlook in which we discuss the inter-connected memes of potential technological futures, the signification of localness in ‘local spatial knowledge’, and the ramifications of ethical tenets by which PGIS and VGI ...
64 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors proposed GeoParticipation based on using spatial tools in order to involve citizens in community participation can be the future development of public participation GIS as it provides an easy-to-use environment and social engagement while creating the feeling of belonging to a certain social group or community.
Abstract: Ever since behavioural geographers started working with place perception; and Peter Gould and Kevin Lynch used mental maps to explore city visualization and spatial preferences, participation has become an integral part of geographical research. Later, when Robert Chambers and others introduced maps into Participatory Rural Appraisal, Participatory GIS and Public Participation GIS were also recognized by quantitative geographers as research methods and visualization tools. In the era of smartphones and global Internet coverage, applications such as FixMyStreet, ArcGIS Online, CartoDB and Maptioannaire allow users to cross the technology gap and become neocartographers without the need for GIS knowledge. GeoParticipation based on using spatial tools in order to involve citizens in community participation can be the future development of Public Participation GIS as it provides an easy-to-use environment and social engagement while creating the feeling of belonging to a certain social group or community. The...
59 citations
TL;DR: In the 1990s, public participation (PPGIS) emerged as an approach to broaden public involvement in policymaking as well as use of GIS to promote the goals of nongovernmental organizations, grassroo...
Abstract: In the 1990s, public participation (PPGIS) emerged as an approach to broaden public involvement in policymaking as well as use of GIS to promote the goals of nongovernmental organizations, grassroo...
36 citations
TL;DR: Research on effect analysis was carried out by capturing and analyzing georeferenced emotions from user-generated content by extracting location-based emotions from the written language in the metadata of georeFerenced Flickr and Panoramio photos.
Abstract: Current location based services mainly provide objective information and collections of facts. Subjective components such as emotions and opinions can provide additional alternative information useful in decision making, e.g. in tourism, business, entertainment and the like. Therefore research on effect analysis was carried out by capturing and analyzing georeferenced emotions from user-generated content. An approach was developed for extracting location-based emotions from the written language in the metadata of georeferenced Flickr and Panoramio photos, i.e. from their titles, descriptions and tags. Within this extraction approach various grammatical issues were considered, like negations of words or amplifications. Procedures were developed for modifying the affected emotions, for example for inverting or intensifying them. The approach was applied to the study area of Dresden, Germany. The obtained emotions were documented in emotional maps of geospace as well as in valence-arousal-space originating f...
34 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the extent to which participatory GIS academic literature has used, defined, measured, and analysed empowerment has been explored, and the degree to which PGIS has, from 1996 to 2014, appropriately and adequately taken into account the causative and direct relationship between a PGIS intervention and empowerment.
Abstract: Since 1996, participatory GIS (PGIS) has facilitated avenues through which public participation can occur. One of the ways practitioners articulate social change associated with PGIS interventions has been to qualify success using the term ‘empowerment’. This paper explores the extent to which PGIS academic literature has utilised, defined, measured, and analysed empowerment. This research will demonstrate the degree to which PGIS has, from 1996 to 2014, appropriately and adequately taken into account the causative and direct relationship between a PGIS intervention and empowerment. This article identifies works broadly dealing with PGIS, then searches within that subset of literature for the term ‘empowerment.’ The findings are both quantitatively and qualitatively assessed to explore the trends within the PGIS literature over time and to contextualise the ways in which empowerment has been identified, understood, and articulated. We conclude with a discussion on the extent to which future PGIS research ...
33 citations
TL;DR: The data obtained in the experiment suggest that alternative forms of visualization may have different impacts on performance in map-reading tasks: colour hue and size proved more efficient in communicating information than shape and colour value.
Abstract: This article addresses the measurement and assessment of response times and error rates in map-reading tasks relative to various modes of linear feature visualization. In a between-subject design study, participants completed a set of map-reading tasks generated by approaches to a traffic problem. These entailed quick and correct decoding of graphically represented quantitative and qualitative spatial information. The tasks first involved the decoding of one graphic variable, then of two variables simultaneously. While alternative representations of qualitative information included colour hue and symbol shape, the quantitative information was communicated either through symbol size or colour value. In bivariate tasks, quantitative and qualitative graphical elements were combined in a single display. Individual differences were also examined. The concept of cognitive style partially explains the variability in people’s perception and thinking, describing individual preferences in object representation and problem-solving strategies. The data obtained in the experiment suggest that alternative forms of visualization may have different impacts on performance in map-reading tasks: colour hue and size proved more efficient in communicating information than shape and colour value. Apart from this, it was shown that individual facets of cognitive style may affect task performance, depending on the type of visualization employed.
31 citations
TL;DR: The research reported here addresses the question of how map alignment and the presence of landmarks in maps interact during wayfinding and indicates that misaligned maps can cancel out positive effects obtained through landmarks.
Abstract: Knowing where one is located within an environment is one of the most fundamental tasks humans have to master in their daily routines. Maps, as external representations of the environment offer intuitive ways to extend the capacities of the human cognitive systems. Operations such as planning a route can be performed on maps instead of in the environment. Question of how to design maps that support cognitive processes such as wayfinding in novel environments have been discussed in several disciplines. The research reported here addresses the question of how map alignment and the presence of landmarks in maps interact during wayfinding. For the purpose of systematically analyzing the relationship between map alignment and landmark presence, nine virtual environments were designed. Routes learned from maps with different alignments and different numbers of landmarks present at decision points were used. While generally landmarks are assumed to foster wayfinding performance, our results indicate that misalig...
28 citations
TL;DR: The Atlas of the Irish Rural landscape is of interest as an exploration of the Ireland landscape but also as an example of the choice of the map as the principal tool for mapping.
Abstract: For readers of this journal, the Atlas of the Irish Rural landscape is of interest as an exploration of the Irish landscape but also as an example of the choice of the map as the principal tool for...
27 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors propose a participatory deep mapping approach to represent community knowledge in GIS and bend geospatial technologies to the needs of communities through deep mapping and spatial storytelling.
Abstract: Participatory GIS (PGIS) was borne out of the cauldron of the GIS and Society debates and the social theoretic critique of GIS. The form and practice of PGIS continues to reflect its origins. At its core PGIS remains focused on integrating local knowledge that is multivalent, equivocal, and often conflictual within a reductionist GIS technology and extensive Spatial Data Infrastructure. Recent conceptual developments in deep mapping and spatial storytelling have the potential to advance the representation of community knowledge through participatory deep mapping. Deep mapping explicitly recognizes that social life is contingent, implicated, and unpredictable. In representing a critical engagement between Geographic Information Science (GISc) and community knowledge and representation, deep mapping potentially challenges the misalignment in representing community knowledge in GIS and in bending geospatial technologies to the needs of communities.
24 citations
TL;DR: The automated selection process is based on John P. Snyder's selection guideline with a few adjustments, and the map projections suggested are discussed.
Abstract: The selection of map projections is difficult and confusing for many. This article introduces Projection Wizard, an online map projection selection tool available at projectionwizard.org that helps mapmakers select projections. The user selects the desired distortion property, and the area to be mapped on an interactive web map. Projection Wizard then proposes a projection, along with projection parameters (such as standard parallels). The tool also creates a preview map with the proposed projection, and provides the corresponding projection code in PROJ.4 format, if applicable. The automated selection process is based on John P. Snyder's selection guideline with a few adjustments. This article discusses the automated selection process, and the map projections suggested. Projection Wizard solves the problem of map projection selection for many applications and helps cartographers and GIS users choose appropriate map projections.
TL;DR: In this paper, a direct-to-digital approach that seeks to minimize misrepresentation and mistranslations of traditional land use (TLU) information is proposed, where the authors focus on the intersections of new methods of TLU/IK data collection.
Abstract: Mapping spatial information to represent indigenous knowledge (IK) and rights has been taking place since the early 1970s in various parts of Canada. These mapping initiatives continue to be primarily associated with traditional land-use (TLU) studies and have deep roots in participatory methods that include aspects of participatory geographic information systems (PGIS). In the current context of encroaching industrial developments into indigenous homelands and the strengthening of Indigenous rights within Canadian Supreme Court rulings, the role of mapping TLU information is central. Who is conducting the research, what tools are used, and how this information is shared are all key questions being asked in the Indigenous context. As a result, the quality of spatial data has become a critical part of these engagement processes. This paper focuses on the intersections of new methods of TLU/IK data collection, namely a direct-to-digital approach that seeks to minimize misrepresentation and mistranslations o...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors proposed a method for the evaluation of historical maps through integration in multiple computer programs such as ArcGIS, MapAnalyst and statistical software (SPSS).
Abstract: Historical maps are vital tools for landscape reconstruction from the late medieval period onwards. However, the planimetric accuracy of local and regional maps before the nineteenth century is often considered problematic. This paper proposes a method for the evaluation of these maps, through integration in multiple computer programs such as ArcGIS, MapAnalyst and statistical software (SPSS). This method has been tested on a sample of historical maps depicting coastal landscape change in an area at the present-day Dutch-Belgian border (ranging from the local to the supra-regional level and from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries), and variations in planimetric accuracy over time have been interpreted. Results point to an exceptionally high accuracy of earlier medium- and large-scale maps – scale being the first determinant of planimetric accuracy – since no significant rise in accuracy over time was found. Notwithstanding this overall accuracy, many maps display pronounced local distortions. Howev...
TL;DR: The project YouthMap 5020, whose main goal it was to create a prototype youth-centric web map for the Austrian city of Salzburg (zip code 5020), addressed the approach of participatory design, about 120 teenage pupils from several local schools were involved in all kinds of tasks related to the phases of generating the youth-focused Salzberg web city map.
Abstract: In recent years, the concepts of usability, user experience, and user-centricity have gained in interest. Digital applications, developed in line with criteria related to these approaches, ask for a deeper understanding of users and their requirements. But, even though there is a wide range of methods available, the creation of user-centric applications with good usability and user experience still poses great challenges for developers. This is also true for web maps, i.e. web map applications, which today are ubiquitous on the Internet. They have evolved into an important information and communication tool and address users who do not possess any specific knowledge of Geoinformatics (GI) or Cartography. Despite the efforts made to meet the requirements and preferences of laymen, these users still often face problems when dealing with web map applications. This refers to aspects of design, content, and functionality. Here, participatory design, which is well-known in the field of Software and Web Engineer...
TL;DR: This work treats a geo-information solution as a system designed to support human-based activities in a specific context through which solutions to contextual problems can be achieved via geographic knowledge, and presents a generic framework that can aid geo- Information experts, geo-informaticians and cartographers in the design and construction of more efficient, effective and satisfactory solutions.
Abstract: Geo-information solutions can achieve a higher level of quality if they are developed in accordance with a user-centred design that requires definition of the user requirements in the first step of solution construction. We treat a geo-information solution as a system designed to support human-based activities in a specific context through which solutions to contextual problems can be achieved via geographic knowledge. Geographic knowledge is a result of geo-data exploration, analysis, interpretation and dissemination with a given geo-information system. Taking the characteristics of geo-information systems into account, existing methods and techniques of requirements engineering may be applied for the design and implementation of geo-information solutions. Based on these considerations, here we present a generic framework that can aid geo-information experts, geo-informaticians and cartographers in the design and construction of more efficient, effective and satisfactory solutions.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors unpick the gnarly question of how the remote sourcing of information through cloud collaboration and satellite imagery jostles with grounded work encouraging local control of local geoinformation.
Abstract: Like Participatory Geographic Information Systems (PGIS) and Public Participation Geographic Information Systems (PPGIS) crowdsourced collaborative mapping is often imagined as an alternative to conventional cartographic practice. This paper examines collaborative mapping projects designed to assist in humanitarian work and respond to catastrophes. These projects, their technological complexity and wide range of collaborators, including affected locals, international Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) and anonymous online contributors, invite closer consideration. In this article I unpick the gnarly question of how the remote sourcing of information through cloud collaboration and satellite imagery jostles with grounded work encouraging local control of local geoinformation. My critical analysis of these projects explores: (1) justifications for action – what is being promised through digital mapping as aid or satellite salvation?; (2) forms of participation – the role of ‘hotties’ ‘nodders’ and ‘digital...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focus on the changes in time, technology and data that have affected traditional partner relationships using participatory geographic information systems (PGIS) project development roles of reliance held by the community, and managed by university agents, has shifted from cooperative to, in some cases, complete independence.
Abstract: This article will focus on the changes in time, technology and data that have affected traditional partner relationships using participatory geographic information systems (PGIS) Project development roles of reliance held by the community, and managed by university agents, has shifted from cooperative to, in some cases, complete independence The modern model of citizen participation includes a resident-planner toolkit with greater access to neighbourhood data and low- to high-tech analytical tools Many community-led quality of life studies have a limited scope and focus on policy issues that do not serve a larger constituency Many neighbourhood plans exclude self-reported neighbourhood knowledge and, due to the frequency of municipal reporting cycles, leaves gaps and data mismatch Given this, the traditional public participation GIS (PPGIS) model may be less data driven due to a more mission-driven resident-led PGIS solution Planners in practice and in academia have raised levels of concern about da
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that Cartography cannot escape the burden of choice and argue that each map is a ma- ma- map, and that the maps speak to us with a language that is as political as it is aesthetic.
Abstract: Maps speak to us with a language that is as political as it is aesthetic. Cartography cannot escape the burden of choice. Whether we accept Harley’s (1991: 13) bold assertion that ‘Each map is a ma...
TL;DR: This paper shows how free software and data were used to scrutinize the implications of one of Matthew Bloch's simple and transparent weighting functions, and demonstrates how weights can undermine the algorithm's capacity to draw caricatures with very few points.
Abstract: Visvalingam's algorithm was designed for caricatural line generalization. A distinction must be made between the algorithm and its operational definition, which includes the metric used to drive it. When the algorithm was first introduced, it was demonstrated using the concept of the effective area of triangles. It was noted that alternative metrics could be used and that the metrics could be weighted, for example to take account of shape.Ordnance Survey (Great Britain) and others are using Visvalingam's algorithm for generalizing coastlines and other natural features, with complex parameter-driven functions to weight the original metric. This paper shows how free software and data were used to scrutinize the implications of one of Matthew Bloch's simple and transparent weighting functions. The results look promising, when compared with manually produced mid and small-scale maps; and encourage further research focussed on weighting functions and related topics, such as self-intersection of lines and model...
TL;DR: In this article, a controlled experiment was designed and conducted to explore how three color dimensions (HSV) affect the abilities of people with normal colour vision or with red-green colour impairments to distinguish colours in maps.
Abstract: Colour impairments influences access to geographical information which is usually represented by colour maps. Three dimensions of colour: Hue, Saturation and Value (HSV), are intuitive and most critical visual variables in map design. In this paper, we specifically focus on colour deficiency of red-green colour impairments. A controlled experiment was designed and conducted to explore how three colour dimensions (HSV) affect the abilities of people with normal colour vision or with red-green colour impairments to distinguish colours in maps. An eye-tracking approach was applied to quantify the accuracy and response time by capturing user eye movements to analyse the effectiveness and efficiency. In this study, we used one section of the administrative map of Hebei Province to test participant responses to area features. Differences of effectiveness and efficiency across normal colour vision and red-green colour impairments were compared. Multiple comparisons among Hue, Saturation and Value were analysed. ...
TL;DR: This is likewise one of the factors by obtaining the soft documents of this designing better maps a guide for gis users by online that you might not require more times to spend to go to the ebook creation as well as search for them.
Abstract: This collaboration between a leading map designer and a software provider is lavishly illustrated with colour examples on every page. The layout is uncluttered and moves easily from section to sect...
TL;DR: The paper describes mental maps and their use in teaching process, shows changes in students’ knowledge of certain rules of cartographic language and design and their applications, and helps in evaluation of teaching process effectiveness.
Abstract: The paper describes mental maps and their use in teaching process. The survey conducted among students of geodesy and cartography resulted in 124 sketches. They were analysed from the point of view of cartographic methodology and used methods of presentation. The different elements and methods were counted and helped in evaluation of teaching process effectiveness, showing changes in students’ knowledge of certain rules of cartographic language and design and their applications. As the survey was conducted in relation to courses taught, the results are of great value in increasing the quality of cartographic content of these courses and teaching methods.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the localization methods into Chinese, Russian two nations with different scripts, and two that are spacefaring ones, and found that the need for the creation of a localized GPN is related to the local importance of scientific papers published in the local language and the existence of locally developed and operated s...
Abstract: The Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature (GPN) is maintained by the International Astronomical Union Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature. It contains the internationally approved forms of place names of planetary and lunar surface features. In the last decades, spacefaring and other nations have started to develop local standardized equivalents of the GPN. This initiated the development of transformation methods and created a need for auxiliary information on the names in the GPN that is not available from the database of the GPN. The creation of ‘localized’ (local language) variants of the GPN in non-Roman scripts is an unavoidable necessity, but is also a cultural need. This paper investigates the localization methods into Chinese, Russian two nations with different scripts, and two that are spacefaring ones. The need for the creation of a localized GPN is related to the local importance of scientific papers published in the local language and the existence of locally developed and operated s...
TL;DR: The background necessary for a clear understanding of forthcoming papers relating to the Visvalingam algorithm for line generalization is provided, and the background and guidance provided will enable others to participate in further research based on the algorithm.
Abstract: This paper provides the background necessary for a clear understanding of forthcoming papers relating to the Visvalingam algorithm for line generalization, for example on the testing and usage of its implementations. It distinguishes the algorithm from implementation-specific issues to explain why it is possible to get inconsistent but equally valid output from different implementations. By tracing relevant developments within the now-disbanded Cartographic Information Systems Research Group (CISRG) of the University of Hull, it explains why (a) a partial metric-driven implementation was, and still is, sufficient for many projects but not for others; (b) why the effective area (EA) is a measure derived from a metric; (c) why this measure (EA) may serve as a heuristic indicator for in-line feature segmentation and model-based generalization; (d) how metrics may be combined to change the order of point elimination; and (e) how Tobler's rule-of-thumb is useful for scale-related filtering of EA. The issues di...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the building of cartographic rules based on Gestalt laws for effective map legend design and found that a map legend designed by considering these new rules is significantly more efficient than the others violating these rules.
Abstract: The legend is an important map component Legend design is one aspect of map design, which forms an important topic in cartography From the literature, it is found that only one study was dedicated to the building of cartographic rules for effective legend design, and no systematic investigations into the building of grouping rules for proper determination of the grouping of legend features (symbols + text descriptions) had been carried out This study is therefore devoted to the building of grouping rules based on Gestalt laws An experimental evaluation of these developed rules was designed and conducted The results indicate that a legend designed by considering these new rules is significantly more efficient than the others violating these rules
TL;DR: In this paper, the general Lambert-Lagrange projection formula is proposed and the application of the modified coordinates is discussed on projections: stereographic, conformal conic and Gauss-Schreiber.
Abstract: The Lagrange projection represents conformally the terrestrial globe within a circle. This is achieved by compressing the latitude and longitude and by applying the new coordinates into the equatorial stereographic projection. The same concept can be generalized to any conformal projection, although the application of this technique to other analytical functions is less known. In this work, the general Lambert–Lagrange projection formula is proposed and the application of the modified coordinates is discussed on projections: stereographic, conformal conic and Gauss–Schreiber. In general, the results are merely a curiosity, except for the case of Gauss–Schreiber, where the use of coordinates with altered scale can be applied in the optimization of conformal projections.
TL;DR: In this article, the development of thematic maps and spatial data focusing on the terrestrial environment of Danish landscapes has been analyzed, with a review of the concept of environmental cartography, followed by a historical analysis of environmental mapping in Denmark.
Abstract: Within the history of cartography, relatively little attention has been devoted to the study of the growing body of maps and spatial data focusing on environmental issues. This is rather surprising, considering the importance of this type of cartography in the handling of the complex environmental problems of modern society. This paper analyses the development of thematic maps and spatial data focusing on the terrestrial environment of Danish landscapes. The paper is introduced with a review of the concept of environmental cartography, followed by a historical analysis of the development of environmental mapping in Denmark. Results suggest that there has been a change in the content and aim of environmental cartography in the twentieth century, from an initial focus on mapping potentials for land use improvement and optimization of the economic outputs from engagement with terrestrial ecosystems, to a focus on monitoring ecosystems and regulation of human intervention. Finally, the usefulness of the conce...
TL;DR: This work shows how the quality of bibliographic records could be improved, not only by adding more specialized description fields, but also by ensuring that the existing ones are being properly used by cataloguers.
Abstract: A sample of 18th, 19th and 20th-Century historical star atlases from the Royal Institute and Observatory of the Spanish Navy and the Linda Hall Library have been selected in order to identify the most frequently supplied scientific information. This work shows how the quality of bibliographic records could be improved, not only by adding more specialized description fields, but also by ensuring that the existing ones are being properly used by cataloguers. A series of new technical parameters is proposed, along with guidelines on how to find them, thus making the task of identifying such parameters easier for cataloguers.
TL;DR: An optimisation algorithm, the snake algorithm, was used to displace multiple objects in order to resolve spatial conflicts and maintain important spatial relationships between objects during displacement, and the results are cartographically usable and in particular, the spatial relationship between objects are preserved.
Abstract: Map data at smaller scales than their source can result in spatial conflict, whereby map symbols become too close, or overlaid. Server map generalisation operators may be applied to solve this problem, including displacement. In this paper, we show how an optimisation algorithm, the snake algorithm, was used to displace multiple objects in order to resolve spatial conflicts and maintain important spatial relationships between objects during displacement. Two principles based on the snake algorithm are proposed in this paper. First, the truss structure mirroring spatial proximity relationships between buildings and between building and road is formed based on the weighted proximity graph derived from constrained Delaunay triangulations (CDT) in each map partition. In the weighted proximity graph, each connecting line is determined as a snake and as an element unit to assemble the global stiffness matrix in snake algorithm. Second, a buffer method that calculates force between a building and a road (or othe...
TL;DR: This study compares four cartographic designs of thematic polygons: only boundaries, transparencies, hatches and icons to investigate whether the designs are good for identifying the extent of the polygons and if the design disturbs the reading of the background map.
Abstract: The number of web services providing cartographic data is increasing. A main challenge is to enable a user to combine these services, not only from a technical perspective, but also from a cartographic one. One common use case for these services is to create mashups based on thematic polygons on top of background maps. In this study we compare four cartographic designs of thematic polygons: only boundaries, transparencies, hatches and icons. The aim of the comparison is to investigate whether the designs are good for identifying the extent of the polygons and if the design disturbs the reading of the background map. The comparison is based on an eye-tracking study, where 24 participants performed polygon identification tasks as well as background search tasks. The study revealed that hatches were more efficient than the other designs for polygon identification. Hatches had significantly shorter total fixation times as well as scanpath lengths, possibly since the participants were able to identify the exte...