Showing papers in "Crime & Delinquency in 2001"
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used results of a qualitative research project to describe the challenges that incarcerated women face as they return to their communities from jail or prison, focusing on the gender and culturally specific needs that formerly incarcerated women from low-income communities face upon release from correctional facilities in this country.
Abstract: This article uses results of a qualitative research project to describe the challenges that incarcerated women face as they return to their communities from jail or prison. Following a descriptive profile of the population, the particular challenges are discussed, focusing on the gender and culturally specific needs that formerly incarcerated women from low-income communities face upon release from correctional facilities in this country. The article concludes with a discussion of the broader contexts that affect women's self-sufficiency, and the need for neighborhood development initiatives, public policy reform, and social changes.
549 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors utilize a sample of approximately 6,000 middle-school students to examine the youth gang phenomenon using five increasingly restrictive membership definitions, the least restrictive definition includes all youth who claim gang membership at some point in time, and the most restrictive definition only those youth who are current core gang members who indicate that their gang has some degree of organizational structure and whose members are involved in illegal activities.
Abstract: The recent explosion in gang research has highlighted the importance of consistent definitions for gang affiliation and gang-related crime. Definitional questions have assumed greater significance in the wake of broad-ranging prevention and intervention strategies. In this article, the authors utilize a sample of approximately 6,000 middle-school students to examine the youth gang phenomenon using five increasingly restrictive membership definitions. The least restrictive definition includes all youth who claim gang membership at some point in time. The most restrictive definition includes only those youth who are current core gang members who indicate that their gang has some degree of organizational structure and whose members are involved in illegal activities. The authors examine the differentially defined gang and nongang youths on various demographic characteristics, theretical factors, and levels of self-reported crime. The authors also address the theoretical and policy implications of shifting de...
503 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors review the mechanisms that plausibly link incarceration to employment and earnings and discuss the challenges of causal inference for a highly self-selected sample of criminal offenders.
Abstract: Rapid growth in the incarceration rate over the past two decades has made prison time a routine event in the life course of young, economically disadvantaged Black and Hispanic men. Although incarceration may now have large effects on economic inequality, only a few studies systematically examine the labor market experiences of ex-offenders. We review the mechanisms that plausibly link incarceration to employment and earnings and discuss the challenges of causal inference for a highly self-selected sample of criminal offenders. There is little consensus about the labor market effects of a variety of justice system sanctions, but there is consistent evidence for the negative effects of prison time on earnings, particularly among older or white-collar offenders. The labor market effects of incarceration are not yet well understood, but prior research suggests several promising avenues for future work.
490 citations
TL;DR: This paper examined the spatial impact of incarceration and explored the problems associated with removing and returning offenders to communities that suffer from high rates of incarceration, and provided a series of policy recommendations to offset some of the unintended consequences of incarceration.
Abstract: Prior research has established that the characteristics of “places” are an important aspect of public safety and local quality of life. Growth in the rates of incarceration since 1973, combined with social disparity in the experience of imprisonment among certain groups, has meant that some communities experience concentrated levels of incarceration. This article examines the spatial impact of incarceration and explores the problems associated with removing and returning offenders to communities that suffer from high rates of incarceration. The study analyzes data from a series of individual and group interviews designed to reveal the experiences and perspectives of a sample of 39 Tallahassee, Florida, residents (including ex-offenders) who live in two high-incarceration neighborhoods. The authors then provide a series of policy recommendations to offset some of the unintended consequences of incarceration. The article concludes with research priorities for further study.
295 citations
TL;DR: The state of programs and research in five health-related issues important to inmates' successful transitions to the community are reviewed: discharge planning, community linkages, and continuity of care; adherence to treatment regimens; availability of housing; quick access to benefit programs; and the particular needs of dually and triply diagnosed individuals.
Abstract: Correctional inmates and ex-offenders are disproportionately burdened by medical and mental health problems. This article reviews the state of programs and research in five health-related issues important to these inmates' successful transitions to the community: discharge planning, community linkages, and continuity of care; adherence to treatment regimens; availability of housing; quick access to benefit programs; and the particular needs of dually and triply diagnosed individuals. In general, such services are currently inadequate, although there are exemplary programs and promising strategies in some of these realms. Additional research is needed to evaluate current programs and encourage their replication and enhancement. The disproportionate share of the nation's total burden of health problems found among inmates and the potential public health and fiscal benefits of an improved response should make this research a high priority.
280 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the potential for more systematic reintegration policies by linking prisoner reentry and related social policy domains of health policy, family and child welfare policy, workforce participation, civic participation, and racial disparities.
Abstract: Reflecting unprecedented prison expansion, the scale of prisoner reentry has reached new heights. Although the movement of individuals from prison to community is not new, a focus on the phenomenon of reentry at this time sheds light on the consequences of America's shifting sentencing policies, the changes in parole supervision, and the concentrated impact of removal and return of prisoners on disadvantaged communities. The profile of the current reentry cohort shows that prisoners are less prepared for reintegration and less connected to community-based social structures. Linkages between prisoner reentry and the related social policy domains of health policy, family and child welfare policy, workforce participation, civic participation, and racial disparities are examined to show the potential for more systematic reintegration policies. The article concludes with discussion of the implications of a reentry perspective for the development of new strategies for prisoner reintegration.
209 citations
TL;DR: The authors find women commit less violence and less serious violence than men, however, despite these gender differences, the same classification instrument predicts violent behavior equally well for women and men.
Abstract: Can the same risk classification instrument be used for both female and male prisoners? The authors answer this question using data for federal prisoners by comparing female and male prison violence rates and by comparing the predictive validity of a risk classification instrument used to predict female and male violence. The authors find women commit less violence and less serious violence than men. However, despite these gender differences, they find the same classification instrument predicts violent behavior equally well for women and men. Taken together, these results lead the authors to argue for correctional policies requiring separate classification systems for women and men.
201 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors presented a multi-year empirical examination of gender bias in the handling of juvenile court cases in Hawaii and found that female offenders are more likely than male offenders to be handled informally at the early stages of the system, but the court's benevolence declines as girls move into the disposition stage.
Abstract: This study presents a multiyear empirical examination of gender bias in the handling of juvenile court cases in Hawaii. Based on prior qualitative and quantitative data, it is hypothesized that once female juvenile offenders are found delinquent, they will be sanctioned more severely than male offenders by the juvenile court, holding other factors constant. Results from a series of analyses indicate significant differences between male and female juvenile justice outcomes, particularly for youth of color. Female offenders are more likely than male offenders to be handled informally at the early stages of the system, but the court's benevolence declines as girls move into the disposition stage. The implications of these findings for resolving inconsistencies in prior research are discussed. Also considered are policy implications with regard to congressional initiatives to de-emphasize the deinstitutionalization of status offenses and reduce concerns about minority overrepresentation in the juvenile justic...
158 citations
TL;DR: This paper examined the current state of the art of prisoner reentry and found that most state prison systems are ill equipped to ease the transition of inmates from prison to the community and that a significant portion of released inmates pose minimal risk to public safety.
Abstract: After three decades of passing laws and implementing policies designed to dramatically increase the nation's prison population and harden the conditions of confinement, there is a newfound interest among policy makers and criminologists in prisoner release. Using national data and a survey of eight states, this article examines the current “state of the art” of prisoner reentry. Not surprisingly, most state prison systems are ill equipped to ease the transition of inmates from prison to the community. A significant portion of released inmates pose minimal risk to public safety. Parole supervision increasingly results in ex-convicts' being reincarcerated for noncriminal behavior or misdemeanor crimes. For most inmates, reentry should be curtailed by either eliminating supervision or greatly shortening the period of supervision.
119 citations
TL;DR: This article employed interrupted time series analysis (ARIMA) to examine the impact of two changes in administrative policy on monthly levels of deadly force in Philadelphia, finding that formal policy can be outweighed by the personal philosophies and policies of the chief, and that its impact is limited to elective encounters.
Abstract: Prior research has sought to identify appropriate mechanisms that can effectively control police officers' decisions to use deadly force. Using data from Philadelphia for a period of more than two decades, this article employs interrupted time series analysis (ARIMA) to examine the impact of two changes in administrative policy on monthly levels of deadly force in Philadelphia. Findings support prior deadly force research suggesting that administrative policy can be an effective deadly force discretion control, but the Philadelphia experience indicates that formal policy can be outweighed by the personal philosophies and policies of the chief, and that its impact is limited to elective encounters.
118 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors consider the dilemma that the erosion of state capital and the formation of negative social capital poses for the return of incarcerated parents into these communities and families, and examine new federal family welfare legislation as indicative of state disinvestments in these families.
Abstract: The 20th century American war on drugs dramatically affected African American innercity neighborhoods and families, and many within these communities see more signs of vindictiveness than reconstruction in the aftermath of this conflict. This article considers the dilemma that the erosion of state capital and the formation of negative social capital poses for the return of incarcerated parents into these communities and families. It examines new federal family welfare legislation as indicative of state disinvestments in these families. The final part of the article suggests directions for research on the reentry of persons released from prison into these communities and families.
TL;DR: The authors examines the role of drugs in increasing the incarcerated population in the United States and examines how to best reach drug-involved offenders to stop the revolving door of drug addiction and incarceration.
Abstract: This article examines the role of drugs in increasing the incarcerated population in the United States. Research is increasingly demonstrating the effectiveness of treatment for incarcerated populations in reducing recidivism and drug use, especially treatment in a therapeutic community (TC). Transitional services that include TC treatment in a work release setting greatly reduce recidivism and relapse, as do aftercare services. Although treatment options are increasing in prisons, there are many more who could benefit from treatment than receive it. Much remains unknown about how to best reach drug-involved offenders to stop the revolving door of drug addiction and incarceration. This article touches on many relevant areas ripe for further research.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the types or seriousness of violations that probationers commit while on probation and found that most probation violations were for technical reasons, and a significant proportion were committed during the first three months of probation.
Abstract: Although much has been written about probation recidivism, studies have primarily focused on rates of recidivism and the characteristics of probationers who succeed or fail. Few studies have examined the types or seriousness of violations that probationers commit while on probation. This article examines the rates and timing of technical violations versus new criminal offenses that probationers commit while under probation supervision. Factors related to the commission of these two types of violations are also examined. Findings indicate that most probation violations were for technical reasons, and a significant proportion were committed during the first 3 months of probation. Few probationers committed new crimes while on probation, and these were often committed later in the probation period. Findings also reveal that certain characteristics of probationers were predictive of early technical and new criminal violations. Implications are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explore the relationship between several addiction career variables and the likelihood of lifetime participation in predatory, victimless, and nonspecialized criminal behaviors. But the use of general crime and drug use categories often obscures important features of their relationship.
Abstract: For many drug users, the initiation of drug use and the subsequent transition to an addiction career is accompanied by criminal activities. However, the use of general crime and drug use categories often obscures important features of their relationship. In the present study, data from the national Drug Abuse Treatment Outcome Studies sample of 7,189 clients in substance abuse treatment were analyzed to explore the relationships between several addiction career variables and the likelihood of lifetime participation in predatory, victimless, and nonspecialized criminal behaviors. The order of initiation of addiction and criminal careers was significantly related to participation in certain types of crimes, with those beginning criminal careers after beginning their addiction careers being more likely to engage exclusively in victimless than in predatory crimes. Likewise, dependence on cocaine, heroin, or both, relative to alcohol, was associated with greater criminal diversity but a reduced likelihood of p...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors presented a series of models of drug arrest rates for a sample of U.S. cities using 1989 data on illegal drug possession and trafficking arrests and socioeconomic data from the 1990 census, and compared predictions derived from social disorganization and conflict theories.
Abstract: Using 1989 data on illegal drug possession and trafficking arrests and socioeconomic data from the 1990 census, this article presents a series of models of drug arrest rates for a sample of U.S. cities. Comparing predictions derived from social disorganization and conflict theories, the models demonstrate that the racial composition of these cities, even while controlling for economic deprivation variables, is the strongest predictor of drug arrest rates. In addition, and also consistent with conflict theory, a measure of police force strength exerts a significant positive effect on trafficking arrest rates.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe the factors that have resulted in persons with serious mental illnesses becoming a growing segment of the correctional population and discuss the changing face of parole supervision and the implications of those changes for the care of PSMIs on parole.
Abstract: This article is divided into four major sections. The first describes the factors that have resulted in persons with serious mental illnesses' (PSMIs') becoming a growing segment of the correctional population. The second explores the changing face of parole supervision and the implications of those changes for the care of PSMIs on parole. Section three discusses the prevalence of mental illnesses among adult prisoners and probationers and draws inferences from those data to the parolee population. Section three also explores mental health care for prison inmates and special programs for PSMIs on probation and parole. The article concludes with several suggestions for improving parole practices to meet the needs of PSMIs.
TL;DR: In this article, a time-series analysis of data from the Federal Bureau of Investigation's Supplementary Homicide Reports over a 21-year period was conducted to investigate the relationship between the homicides that present the greatest level of public danger and police use of deadly force.
Abstract: The connection between police use of deadly force and the criminal homicide rate has long been recognized in the literature. Their temporal relationship, however, has seldom been examined. The present study suggests that earlier research has underestimated the importance of the temporal relationship between the homicides that present the greatest level of public danger and police use of deadly force. This research suggests that police use of deadly force can best be understood through a “ratio-threat” version of the danger-perception theory. Through a time-series analysis of data from the Federal Bureau of Investigation's Supplementary Homicide Reports over a 21-year period, the ratio-threat hypothesis is confirmed. The results suggest that, on a national level, there exists a temporal connection between predatory crime and police use of deadly force. Implications for theory and future research are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors report on an evaluation of this "Blitz to Bloom" initiative that was conducted in the first of the seven neighborhoods, and examine the impact of police maintenance efforts on the continuation of crackdown-induced reductions in reported crime.
Abstract: In April 1999, the Richmond, Virginia, Police Department, in conjunction with other city agencies, began a crackdown and cleanup initiative in seven city neighborhoods. This article reports on an evaluation of this “Blitz to Bloom” initiative that was conducted in the first of the seven neighborhoods. Pre-and postcrackdown data on reported crime and calls for service were analyzed using difference of means tests. A 92% reduction in reported crime occurred in the target area during the month-long crackdown period. Significant reductions in reported crime persisted in some parts of the neighborhood surrounding the area up to 6 months after the crackdown ended. No displacement was observed into the surrounding neighborhood. Although reductions in crime were being recorded, calls for service increased in the neighborhood after the crackdown. Additional research is called for that examines the impact of police maintenance efforts on the continuation of crackdown-induced reductions in reported crime.
TL;DR: The Law Enforcement Management Institute of Texas held 22 statewide training classes from October 1997 to August 1999 to train 40 hours of law enforcement management and leadership training biannually for police chiefs.
Abstract: Texas mandates 40 hours of law enforcement management and leadership training biannually for police chiefs. To implement this requirement, from October 1997 to August 1999, the Law Enforcement Management Institute of Texas held 22 statewide training classes. During the training, we administered a survey on legal liabilities in law enforcement, in which 808 usable surveys were completed. Amassing the largest data set on legal liabilities in law enforcement, this article reports results from that survey and documents the chiefs' perceptions of the prevalence of civil litigation, fear of litigation, type of suits filed by members of the public as well as by their own officers, and issues surrounding settlements, policy and procedure changes, training, indemnification, and lawsuit prevention. The article concludes that nationwide systematic data collection should be undertaken on legal liabilities in law enforcement so the public becomes better informed about this important aspect of police work.
TL;DR: In this paper, a costbenefit evaluation of two community-based intervention techniques, intensive supervision and monitoring (ISM) and intensive outpatient counseling with cognitive behavioral therapy (CB), is presented.
Abstract: Recent empirical research indicates that for juvenile offenders various community-based intervention techniques result in significantly greater positive effects when compared to more traditional approaches. This article presents a cost-benefit evaluation of two such techniques: intensive supervision and monitoring (ISM) and intensive outpatient counseling with cognitive behavioral therapy (CB). A two-equation regression model that controlled for differences in demographic characteristics, personality traits, behavior, and the home environment of the subjects was estimated. The results indicate that, relative to those on probation, participants in the CB program imposed significantly fewer costs on the justice system during the investigative period. No significant difference in justice system expenditures was demonstrated by the ISM group. Comparing the reduced costs of the CB program to the marginal cost of administering the program revealed a net saving of $1,435 in justice system expenditures per youth ...
TL;DR: This paper examined the teen court of Dona Ana County, New Mexico and found that a 25% recidivism rate was found between 1994 and 1998, affected by gender, age, the presence of a prior referral, with whom the juvenile resided, and the severity of the jury sentence.
Abstract: Teen courts are becoming a popular mechanism whereby to process youngsters charged with relatively minor offenses. There has been limited systematic analysis of teen courts to identify either their successes or failures. This study examines the teen court of Dona Ana County, New Mexico, including its processes and apparent recidivism rates. The 478 participants were randomly selected from the program and traced through the local Juvenile Probation and Parole Office (JPPO) database. Interviews were conducted with a teen court staff member, JPPO staff members, and former teen court participants. A 25% recidivism rate was found between 1994 and 1998, affected by gender, age, the presence of a prior referral, whether the youngster completed the teen court program, with whom the juvenile resided, and the severity of the jury sentence. The study—the first of its kind for this court—was able to identify some of the successes and shortcomings of this county's teen court.
TL;DR: In this article, a 90-day, jail-based shock incarceration program was used to study the relationship between the likelihood of being rearrested and race, type of release, number of prior felonies, age, and sentencing points (criminal history).
Abstract: With the early stages of emotional enchantment with their symbolic appeal over, boot camps are increasingly being subjected to accountability measures. Despite their public popularity, research thus far has often cast doubt on the practical ability of such interventions to fulfill their expectations. This study of a 90-day, jail-based shock incarceration program adds to the mounting empirical evidence suggesting that boot camps may not be producing desired results. Realistically, however, such results are unlikely to extinguish this politically viable sentencing alternative. In exploring variables beyond program participation that might contribute to recidivism, this study found relationships between the likelihood of being rearrested and race, type of release, number of prior felonies, age, and sentencing points (criminal history). The implications of these findings for both judicial sentencing considerations and structural program modifications are discussed along with the challenges of constructing a m...
TL;DR: This paper explored the connection between riverboat gambling and crime by examining via interrupted time series analyses index offenses and simple assaults over 286 weeks in Hammond and index, driving under the influence, public intoxication, disorderly conduct, and prostitution offenses over 57 months in Rising Sun.
Abstract: Despite the proliferation of riverboat gambling, few studies have rigorously investigated a link between riverboat gambling and crime. Literature regarding routine activities theory and resort and traditional casino tourism suggests that offenses may increase with the enhanced opportunities for crime provided by the influx of gamblers. Focusing on Indiana communities, this study explored the connection by examining via interrupted time series analyses index offenses and simple assaults over 286 weeks in Hammond and index, driving under the influence, public intoxication, disorderly conduct, and prostitution offenses over 57 months in Rising Sun. The casinos were not found to increase crime in Hammond but were associated with increases in aggravated assaults and thefts in Rising Sun. These somewhat attenuated effects on crime suggest the enhanced criminal opportunity created by riverboat casinos did not increase the overall frequency of individual offenses as might be expected from routine activities theor...
TL;DR: The need for continuity between in-custody and post-release programs and the importance of partnerships and collaborations in supervision and support for offenders is emphasized in this article. But, the need for victim involvement in the planning, management, and implementation of reentry policies and programs can contribute positively to better informed decisions and the achievement of re-entry goals.
Abstract: The current scale of offender reentry creates unprecedented challenges for those, including victims, who have an interest in the successful reintegration of offenders into the community. Current problem-solving approaches emphasize the need for continuity between in-custody and postrelease programs and the importance of partnerships and collaborations in supervision and support for offenders. These developments offer increasing opportunities to victims and victims organizations because their experience and knowledge are often directly relevant to reentry issues. Increased victim involvement in the planning, management, and implementation of reentry policies and programs can contribute positively to better informed decisions and the achievement of reentry goals.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors report an evaluation of an Afrocentric treatment program for male, juvenile, and felony offenders in one city in the United States, using a two-group, quasi-experimental design to compare the 281 African American youths in the Afro-centric treatment programme (called the Community Corrections Partnership) with a comparison group of 140 probation youths.
Abstract: Using Afrocentric techniques has recently emerged as a promising way of delivering services to African Americans Briefly, a number of authors have argued that African Americans are better served, especially by substance abuse services, when service delivery utilizes Afrocentric techniques This study reports an evaluation of an Afrocentric treatment program for male, juvenile, felony offenders in one city The evaluation uses a two-group, quasi-experimental design to compare the 281 African American youths in the Afrocentric treatment program (called the Community Corrections Partnership) with a comparison group of 140 probation youths Overall, the youths assigned to the Afrocentric treatment program performed slightly better than the probationers on 4 out of 15 measures of juvenile and adult criminality
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors evaluate one program that embodies this type of collaboration, Specialized Treatment and Rehabilitation (STAR), which is an innovative juvenile boot camp program in a public school setting that is operated through the combined efforts of the school, the juvenile court, and the juvenile probation department.
Abstract: In the past few years, several dramatic incidents have spurred renewed efforts to control violence and prevent crime in schools. Although it has yet to become a matter of much public discussion, what is particularly notable about many of these efforts is the increased collaboration of criminal and juvenile justice agencies with schools in their capacity as formal agents of control. In the present study, the authors evaluate one program that embodies this type of collaboration—Specialized Treatment and Rehabilitation (STAR). STAR is an innovative juvenile boot camp program in a public school setting that is operated through the combined efforts of the school, the juvenile court, and the juvenile probation department. Results of the evaluation revealed that although the program had a relatively small impact on recidivism, perceptions garnered from parents, teachers, and STAR participants were quite favorable for the program overall.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors sort out the important culpability issues associated with Section 1983 litigation, with particular reference to theories of liability and discuss the relevance of this inquiry for both academics and practitioners, calling attention to the problems the current multitude of culpability standards pose.
Abstract: Title 42, Section 1983 of the U.S. Code provides a remedy in federal court for individuals who suffer constitutional rights violations at the hands of criminal justice officials. To succeed in a Section 1983 lawsuit, a plaintiff must demonstrate a constitutional violation by an official acting under color of state law. Recently, however, courts have begun to require that constitutional rights violations be committed with a certain level of culpability for a finding of liability, a development that has received little attention in the criminal justice literature. Accordingly, this article seeks to (1) sort out the important culpability issues associated with Section 1983 litigation, with particular reference to theories of liability, and (2) discuss the relevance of this inquiry for both academics and practitioners, calling attention to the problems the current multitude of culpability standards pose.
TL;DR: In this paper, results from a survey of Ohio judges who recently experienced a major sentencing reform (Ohio's Senate Bill 2) are examined, and a number of important findings emerge, including that a slight majority of judges favor the reform overall, despite opposition to specific features of the legislation.
Abstract: Sentencing reforms are often presumed to be negatively received by the judiciary, although there is little research directly examining why this is the case. In this article, results from a survey of Ohio judges who recently experienced a major sentencing reform (Ohio's Senate Bill 2) are examined. A number of important findings emerge, including that a slight majority of judges favors the reform overall, despite opposition to specific features of the legislation. There is also evidence that judges who are personally unfavorable toward Senate Bill 2 assume that the majority of judges share their disfavor, whereas judges who favor the bill are more realistic in their perceptions of others' assessments. Chi-square analysis and principal components analysis show that general disfavor of Senate Bill 2 is associated with concerns about loss of judicial authority but that many judges who favor the bill believe it can promote greater equity in sentencing.