Showing papers in "Criminology in 1985"

Contributions of families and peers to delinquency

Abstract: A model is presented that explains the contribution of parents and peers to adolescent delinquent behavior. It is hypothesized that during adolescence a failure in Parent Monitoring and deficits in Social Skills increase the likelihood that a youngster associates with Deviant Peers. Poor Parent Monitoring Deviant Peers, and low levels of Academic Skills are hypothesized to contribute directly to an adolescent's engagement in delinquent behavior, The present model was tested on a sample of 136 seventh and tenth grade male adolescents by using the structural modeling approach in the LISREL IV analysis program (Joreskog & Sorbom, 1978). The major revision of the model was that the correlation between Academic Skills and Parent Monitoring was set to zero. A chi square goodness-of-fit test for the revised model showed adequate agreement between the hypothesized model and the observed covariance structure of the data. It was suggested that a number of requirements be completed before accepting the above model: (1) replication of this model on a new set of data, (2) longitudinal analyses showing the hypothesized relations through time, and (3) experimental testing by manipulation of one or more independent variables, as is possible in clinical intervention studies.

Are uniform crime reports a valid indicator of the index crimes? an affirmative answer with minor qualifications*

Abstract: For more than two decades, the validity and reliability of official statistics on crime have been treated as highly questionable. Recently a number of studies have investigated the construction of official statistics on crime and issues related to their reliability and validity. However, there has been no recent attempt to bring together and evaluate these studies; thus, we do not know what official statistics mean and how we should interpret them. In the present paper it is argued that it is now possible to develop an understanding of what official statistics measure. It appears that both citizens and the police are in general agreement about what a serious crime is: it involves bodily injury (or serious threat of bodily injury), the property stolen is of high value, the act is committed by a stranger, or it involves breaking and entering. The authors argue that the perceived seriousness of the crime, first and primarily as defined by the victim, second as determined by the police, apparently accounts for most of the variance in whether a crime is reported and officially recorded; personal characteristics of the offender and victim have only minor effects. It is concluded that the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR), as measured by the FBI Index of Crime, are valid indicators of serious crimes as defined by the citizenry. The evidence supporting this conclusion is very substantial with regard to motor vehicle theft, robbery, burglary, and homicide, while with larceny, rape, and aggravated assault, the evidence supporting this conclusion is substantial but does require the interpretation of conflicting evidence.

Denying the guilty mind: accounting for involvement in a white‐collar crime*

Abstract: This study of convicted white-collar offenders treats their explanations for involvement in criminal activities. It focuses specifically on the techniques that are used to deny criminality. The strategies used to accomplish this end are detailed. It is suggested that the accounts developed by white-collar offenders to explain involvement in criminal activities are structured by the mechanics, histories, and organizational formats of offenses and by the requirement that they defeat the conditions of successful degradation ceremonies. In conclusion, some preliminary observations concerning the causes of white-collar crime are made.

Social control theory and delinquency: a longitudinal test

Abstract: Hirschi's (1969) control theory has received much empirical support and, as a consequence, has become one of the dominant theories of delinquency. Virtually all tests of the theory, however, have been conducted with cross-sectional data. This is a serious problem since there is good reason to believe that delinquency may have a causal impact on social control. This paper describes a longitudinal test of Hirschi's theory using panel data from a national sample of adolescent boys. Data indicate that the social control variables explain only 1%-2% of the variance in future delinquency, suggesting that cross-sectional studies have exaggerated the importance of Hirschi's theory. Possible reasons for the small longitudinal effect of the control variables are discussed.

The effect of dropping out of high school on subsequent criminal behavior

Abstract: Sociological theories of delinquency offer rather divergent predictions concerning the effect of dropping out of high school on subsequent delinquent and criminal behavior. For example, strain theory suggests that dropping out decreases such behavior, especially for lower class youth, while social control theory suggests that dropping out should increase the chances of criminal activity. Moreover, empirical studies provide support for each of these views with the most influential study (Elliott and Voss, 1974) presenting evidence consistent with a strain perspective. The present investigation identifies methodological shortcomings in previous studies and reexamines the link between dropout status and subsequent criminal activity. Results indicate that dropping out of high school is positively associated with later crime, an outcome that is consistent with a control perspective.

Cosmic rays in interplanetary magnetic fields

Abstract: I: Physical Properties of the Interplanetary Medium.- 1. The Solar Wind.- 1.1. Observational Data on the Solar Wind.- 1.2. Origin of the Solar Wind.- 1.3. Interaction of the Solar Wind with the Interstellar Medium.- 2. Large-scale Interplanetary Magnetic Fields.- 2.1. Observational Data on Large-scale Interplanetary Magnetic Fields and their Association with Magnetic Fields on the Sun.- 2.2. Theory of Interplanetary Magnetic Fields and Comparison with Experiment.- 3. Oscillations and Waves in Solar Wind Plasma.- 3.1. Disturbances of the Interplanetary Medium.- 3.2. Theory of MHD Waves in the Non-uniform Solar Wind.- 3.3. Observational Data on MHD Waves.- 4. Shocks and Discontinuities in the Interplanetary Medium.- 4.1. Possible Types of MHD Shocks and Discontinuities in the Interplanetary Plasma.- 4.2. Observational Data on MHD Shocks and Discontinuities in the Solar Wind Plasma.- 5. Spectral Description of Stochastic Magnetic Fields.- 5.1. Correlation Tensors of Stochastic Magnetic Fields.- 5.2. Spectra of Magnetic Fields and Plasma Parameters.- 5.3. On the Theory of Solar Wind Turbulence.- II: Theory of Fast Particle Motion in Interplanetary Magnetic Fields.- 6. Qualitative Picture of Fast Particle Motion in Interplanetary Space.- 7. Kinetic Equation for Particles Moving in Magnetic Fields with Small-scale Inhomogeneities.- 7.1. Initial Equation and Basic Approximations.- 7.2. Averaging over Small-scale Magnetic Fields.- 7.3. Kinetic Equation. The Case of Small-scale Inhomogeneities.- 8. Transport Equation.- 8.1. Diffusion Approximation. Convective Transport and Adiabatic Variation of Particle Energy.- 8.2. Transport Equation for Scattering of Particles on MHD Discontinuities and Magnetic Clouds.- 8.3. Second-order Acceleration Effects for Regular Large-scale Plasma Motions.- 8.4. Derivation of the Transport Equation on the Basis of Drift Approximation.- 9. Scattering and Transport of Particles in Strong Magnetic Fields.- 9.1. Averaging over Particle Rotations Round Magnetic Field Lines and Over Large-scale Random Magnetic Fields.- 9.2. Evaluation of Pitch-angle Diffusion Coefficient.- 9.3. Diffusion Equation. Longitudinal Diffusion Coefficient.- 9.4. Transverse Diffusion Coefficient.- 9.5. Evaluation of Diffusion Coefficient from Experimental Data on Spectra of Magnetic Fluctuations and Comparison with Experiment.- III: Propagation of Energetic Solar Particles.- 10. Basic Observational Data on Energetic Particles of Solar Origin.- 10.1. Overall Data.- 10.2. Abundance of Energetic Solar Particles (Nucleon Component).- 10.3. Events Enriched by 3He and Heavy Elements.- 10.4. Spectra of Energetic Solar Particles.- 10.5. Temporal Rises of Energetic Solar Particle Intensity.- 10.6. Anisotropy of Low-energy Solar Protons.- 10.7. Coronal Propagation.- 10.8. Quasi-stationary Background of Low-energy Particles in Interplanetary Space.- 10.9. Anomalous Component.- 10.10. Solar Electrons.- 10.11. Total Energy of Particles Accelerated in Solar Flares.- 11. Anisotropic Propagation of Solar Cosmic Rays.- 11.1. Stationary Propagation of Particle Streams with Large Anisotropy.- 11.2. Temporal Variation of Intensity for Large Particle Transport Paths.- 11.3. Scattering at Pitch Angles Close to TT/2. Coherent Propagation of Solar Particles.- 11.4. Numerical Simulations of Solar Proton Propagation.- 12. Stationary Transport of Solar Cosmic Rays.- 13. Diffusion and Convection of Solar-flare Cosmic Rays.- 13.1. Transport of Non-relativistic Protons.- 13.2. Temporal Variation of Anisotropy.- 13.3. Numerical Simulations of Transport of Solar-flare Particles with Allowance for Convection and Adiabatic Deceleration.- IV: Particle Acceleration Processes in Interplanetary Space.- 14. Observational Data on Energy Variations of Cosmic Rays in Interplanetary Space.- 14.1. Observations of Adiabatic Particle Deceleration.- 14.2. Basic Data on Acceleration Processes in Interplanetary Space.- 14.3. Particle Acceleration in Corotating High-speed Streams.- 14.4. Anomalous Component Acceleration.- 14.5. Particle Acceleration in Planetary Magnetospheres.- 14.6. Particle Acceleration at the Heliomagnetosphere Boundary.- 15. Particle Acceleration Due to Random Plasma Motions: Fermi Mechanism.- 15.1. Particle Acceleration in the Moving Cloud Model.- 15.2. Acceleration Due to Large-scale Motions of the Medium.- 15.3. Particle Acceleration by Gyrotropic Turbulence.- 16. Particle Acceleration by MHD Turbulence.- 16.1. Acceleration by Small-scale Fields. Energy Diffusion.- 16.2. Acceleration of Non-confined and Confined Particles by Large-scale Fields.- 16.3. List of Main Results.- 16.4. Estimates of the Turbulent Acceleration Coefficient in Interplanetary Space.- 17. Formation of Spectra of Accelerated Particles.- 17.1. Spectra of Particles Accelerated by MHD Turbulence.- 17.1.1. Non-stationary Acceleration in a Uniform System.- 17.1.2. Acceleration with Account for Spatial Diffusion.- 17.2. Effect of Acceleration on Transport of Solar Protons.- 17.2.1. The Effects of Adiabatic Losses and Acceleration.- 17.2.2. Joint Account for Adiabatic Losses, Acceleration and Spatial Diffusion.- 17.3. Particle Acceleration in the Magnetosphere of Jupiter.- 18. Acceleration and Transport of Particles by MHD Shocks.- 18.1. Fast Particle Interaction with Shock Front: Acceleration, Reflection and Crossing.- 18.2. Fermi Acceleration of Particles Near a Shock in a Turbulent Medium. Boundary Conditions for Fast Particles at MHD Shock Fronts.- 18.3. Acceleration and Transport of Solar-flare protons by Interplanetary Shocks (Diffusion Model).- 18.4. Monte Carlo Simulations of Proton Transport by Shocks.- 18.5. Short-term Enhancements with Large Anisotropics and Soft Spectra.- 18.6. Proton Acceleration to Relativistic Energies in Inter-planetary Space.- 18.7. Acceleration of Particles from the Uniform Background and Formation of the "Universal" Spectrum of Cosmic Rays.- 18.8. Generation of Turbulence by Accelerated Particles near Interplanetary Shock Fronts.- 18.9. The Role of Energy Losses and Particle Injection into the Regime of Acceleration by a Shock.- 18.10. The Effect of Accelerated Particles on Shock Front Structure.- 18.11. Fast Particle Acceleration by a Moving Spherical Shock.- V: Modulation of Galactic Cosmic Rays.- 19. Basic Observational Data on Galactic Cosmic Rays.- 19.1. Abundances of Galactic Cosmic Rays.- 19.2. Energy Spectra of Primary Cosmic Rays.- 19.3. Intensity Variations of Galactic Cosmic Rays Due to Interaction with Interplanetary Magnetic Fields.- 19.3.1. 11-year Variation.- 19.3.2. 27 day Variations.- 19.3.3. Forbush Decreases.- 19.3.4. Short-term Variations (Intensity Fluctuations) of Cosmic Rays.- 19.4. Anisotropy of Galactic Cosmic Rays.- 19.5. Radial and Latitudinal Gradients of Galactic Cosmic Rays.- 20. Theory of Galactic Cosmic Ray Modulation by Solar Wind Magnetic Field.- 20.1. The Diffusion-convection Model.- 20.2. The Effect of Drifts in Non-uniform Interplanetary Magnetic Fields on Modulation of Galactic Cosmic Rays.- 20.3. Particle Acceleration in the Region where the Solar Wind Interacts with the Interstellar Medium.- 21. Short-term Variations of Cosmic Ray Intensity.- 21.1. The Sources of Short-term Cosmic Ray Variations.- 21.2. Equation for Two-particle Distribution Function.- 21.3. Intensity Fluctuations of High-energy Cosmic Rays.- 21.4. Equation for Two-particle Distribution Function in the Drift Approximation.- 21.5. Fluctuations of Moderate-energy Particles.- 21.6. Comparison with Experiment.- Concluding Remarks.- I. The Green Function of the Stationary Transport Equation.- II. Solution to Non-stationary Transport Equation for a Constant Diffusion Coefficient.- III. Adiabatic Invariant of Charged Particle Crossing a Transverse Shock.- IV. Adiabatic Invariant of Charged Particle Crossing an Oblique Shock.

The social ecology of urban homicide: an application of the “routine activities” approach

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to use the recently developed “routine activities” approach to help interpret patterns of homicide in a major metropolitan area—Manhattan, New York We argue that the routine activities perspective suggests several distinctive hypotheses about the relationships among sociodemographic characteristics of victims, temporal features of the situation, and the probability of being involved in different kinds of homicide. More specifically, we hypothesize that the sociodemographic characteristics of age, sex, race, marital status, and employment status, along with temporal factors such as time of day, day of week and time of year, will be related systematically to the location of homicide (that is, The geographical proximity to the victim's household) and to the victim-perpetrator relationship (that is, the social proximity of participants: family members, friends, strangers). Detailed data on all recorded homicides occurring in Manhattan during 1981 are examined to evaluate the hypotheses. The results are generally consistent with expectations, indicating that the routine activities approach does indeed provide a useful framework for interpreting the social ecology of urban homicide.

Individual and organizational determinants of correctional officer attitudes toward inmates

Abstract: This paper analyzes the impact of individual attributes and organizational influences in the determination of correctional officers’attitudes toward inmates. Drawing on survey data from 179 line-level correctional officers, the analysis evaluates the expectations of prison reformers that more highly educated, female, and minority officers will hold more positive attitudes toward their inmate clientele. Contrary expectations drawn from the sociology of work literature suggest that the work-role socialization will overshadow the effect of individual attributes in the determination of officer attitudes. The analysis reveals that minority officers hold more positive orientations toward inmates, while education and gender exert no impact. In addition, organizational-level characteristics are also important in the prediction of officer views of inmates. These findings suggest that correctional reforms that focus primarily on changing the demographic composition of correctional officers are quite unlikely to ameliorate significantly the tension in today's prisons. It is necessary for both reformers and social scientists to develop more sophisticated analyses of the interplay between individual attributes and work organization characteristics and their joint effects on behavior in the prison setting.

Age differences in delinquency: a test of theory*

Abstract: This study tests an integrated theoretical model of delinquency on a representative sample of 341 male New Jersey adolescents. The model is a modified version of Hirschi's control theory that integrates, in part, cultural deviance theory. This study addresses two questions: (1) how well does the theory explain delinquency within different adolescent age groups? and (2) does the salience of individual components in the model differ from one age group to another? Path analysis indicates that parameter estimates vary substantially across age groups The influence of parents and the school peak considerably in midadolescence while the influence of delinquent companions is greatest among the oldest male group. The findings indicate that the processes related to delinquency change considerably as youths age through adolescence, thus implying that the issue of “age generalizability” warrants greater attention than presently given in delinquency theory and research.

Differences between gang and nongang homicides

Abstract: VioLit summary: OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study by Maxson et al. was to assess the differences between gang related homicides and other homicides. The study addressed both the nature of the differences and relative effects of situational variables in producing the differences between gang and nongang related homicide. The question of whether gang related homicides warrant distinctive public concern was also a focus. METHODOLOGY: A quasi-experimental, secondary method was used to analyze data collected from law enforcement investigation files on over 700 gang and nongang designated homicides within jurisdiction on the Los Angeles Sheriff's Department and the Los Angeles Police Department. The LAPD and the LASD were treated as separate samples due to differences in sampling and jurisdictional practices. To maximize the comparability between gang and non-gang incidents, all homicides included in the analyses had at least one named suspect between the ages of 10 and 30. The LASD data included all gang homicides between 1979 and 1981. Non-gang homicides were selected according to a random sampling design stratified by rate of gang homicide per station. The data were analyzed using bivariate and discriminant analyses. FINDINGS/DISCUSSION: There are rough qualitative as well as quantitative distinctions between how and where gang/nongang homicides occurred. According to the LASD and LAPD data, gang killings were far more likely to take place in public settings, were somewhat more likely to involve automobiles and shooting out of a vehicle, and were more likely to include additional offenses, particularly attempted homicide and assault with a deadly weapon. Gang murders were more likely to involve guns and more weapons overall. Gang murders are more likely to include additional offenses, particularly attempted homicide and assault with a deadly weapon. Gang cases were more likely to inflict injuries in addition to the homicide, although the difference in the number of injured victim companions per injury case did not reach statistical significance. Gang homicides appeared to be considerably more visible and more violent, yet the differences are not so striking. As compared to the nongang setting, gang killings are less dramatically different than is often depicted, but more broadly different than is generally recognized. The second aspect of possible differences is the characteristics of the homicide suspects and victims. LASD data showed that gang homicides involved two and a half times as many participants, and they were twice as likely to never have had known prior contact with their victims. Homicide victims and suspects charged with homicide are about five years younger in gang incidents, and in the LASD jurisdiction, gang suspects were more often Hispanic, almost never white, and are in contrast to the more even ethnic breakdown in nongang cases. The LAPD data showed homicides have more black participants as well as high amounts of Hispanic participants, but very few white suspects as victims, even in nongang cases. The participant variables showed a general pattern of lower coefficients of association in the LAPD data than is true in the LASD tables. Discriminant analysis was utilized to assess the differentiation between designated gang and nongang cases in the multivariate context. In both LASD and LAPD data, the proportion of variance in the discriminant function was high. All coefficients - mean age of suspects, Hispanic suspects, street location, number of participant suspects, presence of a gun, mean age of victims, proportion of male suspects, no prior contact between victims and suspects, number of victims, black suspects, associated violent offenses, automobile present, mean age of victims, and mean age difference - were significant. In the LAPD data, mean age and ethnic status of suspects were most important followed by other suspect related variables. The LAPD data showed similar tendencies except that the discrimination between gang and nongang cases was smaller. In both, participant variables were most important. From these findings, the author concludes that there are substantial differences between gang and nongang homicides. Gang homicides differ with respect to ethnicity, age, number of participants, relationship between participants, as well as occurrence in public places, use of automobiles, and firearms, properties clearly related to the group nature of the events. AUTHORS' RECOMMENDATIONS: The authors stated that the issue of public concern regarding gang homicides is not very clear, but the data collected showed the potential threat of gang violence to the general public to be non-substantial. Since incidents present unique problems, many investigators may benefit from the specialized skills and experience of experts on gang. The implication of the differences between gang and nongang homicides for specialization in law enforcement can be more broadly drawn as gang/nongang violence. The authors claimed that, given the nature of these differences, investigative specialization may be justified in police departments. EVALUATION: This article makes some important contributions. The first is the dissection of homicide into more specific types. Clearly, we see that gang and non-gang homicides have some important differences that would be masked with a singular look at homicides in general. The revelation of these differences, however, does not correlate with the perceived widespread nature of gang homicide. Further research should seek to further investigate these differences in both descriptive and theoretical ways and with a broader data base. (CSPV Abstract - Copyright © 1992-2007 by the Center for the Study and Prevention of Violence, Institute of Behavioral Science, Regents of the University of Colorado) KW - California KW - Gang KW - Homicide Victim KW - Comparative Analysis KW - Violence Situations KW - Victim Offender Relations KW - Public Environment KW - Firearms KW - Racial Differences KW - Ethnicity KW - Age Factors KW - Juvenile Victim KW - Juvenile Violence KW - Juvenile Offender KW - Adult Violence KW - Adult Offender KW - Adult Victim KW - Homicide Offender KW - Law Enforcement KW - Police KW - Public Awareness

Socioeconomic disparities under determinate sentencing systems: a comparison of preguideline and postguideline practices in minnesota*

Abstract: After a brief review of determinate sentencing systems, this study examines the impact of Minnesota's determinate sentencing law on various presentence and sentencing outcomes. Using comparable pre- and postguideline measures, the results of this study suggest that Minnesota's reform effort was largely successful in reducing disparity within the scope of the new guidelines. However, although the direct impact of socioeconomic attributes of the offender diminished, these characteristics continued to influence sentencing decisions indirectly through various presentence decisions and case attributes not governed by the guidelines Different models of charge bargaining and sentence negotiations are also observed when pre- and postguideline models are compared. Yet, the determinants of these time-specific models are not consistent with the assumptions of a circumvention argument. The paper concludes with suggestions for further research evaluating the impact of determinate sentencing systems on achieving social neutrality in the application of criminal sanctions.

An errors‐in‐variable model of the effect of poverty on urban homicide rates

Abstract: Inconsistent findings on the relationship between poverty and violent crime have led some authors to question the presence of a structural relationship. There is reason, however, to believe that many of the existing estimates are biased because measures of poverty contain errors which are confounded with disturbances in the estimated models. In this paper we specify and estimate a model which accommodates the measurement error and provides an instrumental variable estimate of the effects of poverty on homicide rates in the 49 largest cities in the U.S. Compared to similar OLS estimates, the instrumental variable estimates are much larger and fit a model in which poverty increases the homicide rate. The results are similar when homicides are divided into four types: family homicides, other primary homicides, robbery homicides, and other-felony homicides

The exercise of power in coercive organizations: a study of prison guards*

Abstract: If the power of prison guards has been altered and reduced by recent social, legal, and bureaucratic instructions in American prisons, as has been reported by many observers, then what is the base of power by which guards currently exert control over prisoners? Following a discussion of the bases of power in prison, data from a survey of guards in five prisons are examined to determine the extent to which each power base is viewed as a resource to gain prisoner compliance. The results are discussed in terms of the guards’exercise of control within the increasingly bureaucratic structure of coercive organizations.

Adversarial and nonadversarial justice: a comparison of guilty pleas and trials*

Abstract: Despite the frequency of guilty pleas, researchers disagree about the ability of plea bargaining to provide justice. Critics argue that plea bargaining deprives defendants of due process rights and procedural safeguards Proponents argue that guilty pleas save resources for cases that require trial and allow officials flexibility to tailor justice to individual defendants. This article explores these issues by examining the effect of defendant and case characteristics on sentence severity for 3,269 male robbery and burglary defendants who either pled guilty or were tried in six U.S. jurisdictions, three of which had recently attempted to eliminate or greatly reduce plea bargaining and three with few restrictions on plea bargaining. The results confirm some criticisms of plea bargaining, but refute others. More criminally experienced defendants and defendants who pled guilty at the earliest opportunity did not receive sentencing leniency. Moreover, to a large extent, the same variables predict sentence severity for guilty pleas and trials. In contrast, the results show that defendants convicted at trial received more severe sanctions than defendants who pled guilty, controlling for case severity, evidence, and offender characteristics The results also suggest that the jurisdictions which attempted to control plea bargaining through more centralized control of assistance succeeded in tightening the fit between case characteristics and sentences for both cases adjudicated by guilty plea and trial.

Expensive drug use and illegal income: a test of explanatory hypotheses*

Abstract: Although the empirical association of heroin use and income-generating crime is well established in past research, the magnitude of the association after control of other factors such as legal income is not known. The relationship between the use of cocaine and income-generating crime has not received adequate attention. Moreover, the explanatory basis for the expensive drug use/income-generating crime association is not well understood. This article tests the robustness of the heroin use/income-generating crime relationship and examines the same question for cocaine use. Hypotheses derived from two explanatory perspectives (the compulsion/demand and life-style models) are tested. Data were collected from more than 3,500 individuals who were interviewed at the time they entered publicly funded drug abuse treatment programs in 1979. Regression analyses show that daily use of heroin and weekly and daily use of cocaine are strongly associated with illegal income. Theoretical interpretation of the findings suggest: (1) the addiction/compulsion explanatory model is an insufficient explanation, (2) the life-style concept is useful for understanding the expensive drug use/income-generating crime relationship, and (3) the concept of addiction needs refinement and elaboration.

Assessments of risk and behavioral experience: an exploratory study of change

Abstract: This study examines the relationship between assessments of the risk of punishment and self-reported involvement in three illegal behaviors in a sample of college-aged respondents. It is found that those respondents who had not yet committed a particular offense were more likely to perceive a greater certainty of punishment than those with experience in committing the offense. For two of three offenses the effect of becoming involved in offending had a more substantial impact on the perceptions of those respondents with both experience in offending and high perceived certainty of punishment than on those who had experience and less pessimistic estimates of risk Finally, a multivariate analysis of the relationship between behavioral and perceptual change reveals that each variable affects the other even when other sources of change are controlled. The importance of the findings for the deterrence doctrine are discussed.

Gender, fear, and protective handgun ownership*

Abstract: Nonrecursive models which have been used to assess the potentially reciprocal relationship between fear of crime and handgun ownership may suffer on two accounts: (a) the use of “weak” instrumental variables: and (b) the measurement of household (versus personal) handgun ownership. Data from the 1980 NORC General Social Survey are used in this study to minimize these problems in examining the relationships among fear of crime, victimization, and protective handgun ownership among males and females. Significant effects of fear and victimization on personal gun ownership are found among men but not among women. These results are discussed in light of two concerns. First, earlier research is confirmed that finds gender differences in the factors influencing gun ownership. Second, a clear need is emphasized for further research addressing questions of both conceptualization and measurement in the study of fear of crime and its effects on protective handgun ownership.

Family and delinquency: structure or function?*

Abstract: Although much debate and research have been centered on the relative importance of familial structure (for example, presence of parents) and functions (for example, relationship with parents) for delinquency, the discipline has failed to come to terms, both theoretically and empirically, with the inherent complexity of the issues. Recognizing that structure necessitates some functional consequences, the complexity of the issues is explored. Utilizing a city-wide representative sample of black youths and a somewhat systematic sample of white youths, an Automatic Interaction Detection (AID) analysis is used to uncover unsuspected interaction patterns of six independent variables. Interaction with the father emerged as the single most important variable for blacks. However, AID did uncover for blacks important interactions with family size, presence of father, and social class. A somewhat different and more tenuous pattern was found for whites, with social class being the most important variable and father–son interaction showing very little relationship with delinquency. It seems evident, therefore, that structure and function, especially for blacks, are both of importance for delinquency.

Structural sources of variation in race-age-specific rates of offending across major u.s. cities*

Abstract: Recently, much attention has been focused on the structural determinants of variations in crime rates across U.S. cities. Virtually all research in this area has utilized aggregate reported offense rates as the dependent variable. While it provides a good indicator of the total volume of crime, the aggregate crime rate suffers two major disadvantages-it obscures individual- and aggregate-level effects, and it does not allow testing of criminological theory which specifies differential effects of economic variables (for example, poverty, inequality) on offending rates for various population subgroups (for example, black adults, white adults). The present study addresses these issues by examining the economic determinants of age, race, and crime-specific offending rates for a sample of the nation's largest cities. The overall results suggest that income inequality has a direct positive effect on black offending rates for serious crime, whereas black poverty has no effect. In contrast, white poverty has positive effects on white violence, while inequality significantly increases white robbery and burglary. The implications of findings for recent theoretical developments of conflict and relative deprivation theory are assessed.

The impact of social supports on police stress

Abstract: Utilizing a theoretical perspective (the “social supports model”) increasingly applied by stress researchers in other fields, the present endeavor explores whether social supports operate to shield officers from the stresses emanating from police work To investigate this issue, 91 suburban officers were administered a questionnaire that contained scales measuring four job-related stressors, four types of social supports, and two forms of psychological stress—work and life. With regard to the stressors, the data analysis revealed that feelings of dangerousness were significantly and positively related to both stress scales, while shift change and court problems increased only general lye stress. It was also found that supervisory support mitigates work stress while family support helps to reduce more general psychological discomfort. These latter results rein force the assertion that future research could profit by systematically exploring the circumstances, such as social supports, which enable police to cope effectively with the more stressful features of their work.

Consensus in crime seriousness: empirical reality or methodological artifact?*

Abstract: Miethe (1982) has recently argued that the consistent findings of wide-spread consensus in the rankings of the seriousness of crimes may be more a rejection of the methodological approaches used by past researchers than of actual public sentiments. Building on Miethe's insights, this paper examines the extent to which the nature of the techniques employed to analyze data influences seriousness evaluations. The results indicate that consensus is affected by such factors as the rating task given to the subjects, how consensus is measured, and the type of offense under investigation. In turn these methodological considerations caution against using existing research as the bask either for the verification of consensus theories of justice or for the formulation of sanctioning policy.

Crimes, crime rates, arrests, and arrest ratios: implications for deterrence theory*

Abstract: The relationship between crimes and arrests is one of the central issues in deterrence theory. There are several conceptual difficulties in attempting to assess whether arrests deter crimes or the number of crimes determine the number of arrests. These problems are compounded when rates are used to measure both variables. The issue is whether criminals respond to arrests or the police respond to changes in crime. The present analysis compares regression results when the variables are measured both as rates and raw numbers for three offenses: homicide, robbery, and burglary. The results indicate that arrests follow crimes. This suggests the need to reexamine some studies that argue that criminals’perceptions of arrest rates are an indication of deterrence.

An analysis of serious crime by young black women

Abstract: This research focuses on a relatively unexplored phenomenon—black female juvenile offenders. Both theoretical and research work are weak or nonexistent regarding these offenders. This paper seeks to fill some of these gaps. In addition, this research effort draws on a source of data that has in frequently been adapted to study offenders, National Crime Survey (NCS) victimization data. Utilizing NCS data from 1973 through 1981, a comparative analysis of NCS rates of juvenile offenses by black females, black males, white females, and white males is presented and discussed. A number of propositions which are found in the literature regarding black female offenders are examined. Trends in offending by black females compared with trends for other age-race-sex subgroups are also presented and analyzed. Finally, some implications for future theoretical and research efforts are presented

Producing personal safety: the effects of crime rates, police force size, and fear of crime

Abstract: Aggregate data from a sample of 23 Canadian cities are used to examine relationships among crime rates, police staffing rates, fear of crime, and citizens’crime prevention behaviors. Bivariate and path analyses reveal positive correlations between fear of crime and parallel production (crime prevention behaviors) and negative impacts of police force size on such behaviors. Crime rates have both direct and indirect positive effects (via fear of crime) on parallel production. while police force size does not have any real effect on fear of crime.

Overcoming the crisis in critical criminology: toward a grounded labeling theory*

Abstract: It has been said that critical criminology is in a state of crisis The author contends that the theoretical roots of this crisis lie in the failure of critical criminology to come to terms with the interactionist tradition from within which it developed. He shows how the traditional critical-Marxist critiques of interactionism have failed to comprehend the substance of this approach. Such substance is rooted in the social philosophy of pragmatism, especially in the thought of Mead, and in the reality of 20th-century social relationships The author proposes that the renewed critical criminology should be based in a grounded labeling theory which is able to foster consideration of both practical and discursive forms of interaction.

Sibling interaction and selfreported delinquent behavior: a study of 265 twin pairs

Abstract: The relationship between the quality of twins’mutual attachment and delinquency is examined in a study of 265 twin pairs. It is predicted that twins with stronger mutual attachments will have lower rates of delinquent behavior. Contrary to this prediction, twins’mutual attachment (that is, the frequency with which the twins saw each other in teenage activities) is found to be unrelated to delinquent behavior. The twins often cooperated, however, in their delinquent acts: 61 % of the girls and 79% of the boys reported committing one or more delinquent acts with their twins. In accord with social control theory, social bonds (normlessness, perceived parental acceptance-rejection, and value placed on academic achievement) are strongly associated with delinquent behavior. Except for male DZ twins, however, these same variables are only weakly associated with twins’mutual attachments. A behavioral genetic analysis of the social bonds indicate both genetic and specific environmental components to their variation but fail to show evidence of a shared environmental component. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Crime as hazard: perceptions of risk and seriousness*

Abstract: The study of crime suffers from an inattention to the social consequences of criminal acts. Conceiving crimes within the larger context of “hazard,” data are reported on the relative seriousness of conventional and white-collar crimes, as well as other hazards, using a sample of Washington state respondents. The results indicate that there is an inverse relationship between the perceived likelihood of a hazard and its seriousness. Generally, the more immediate the threat of a hazard, such as white-collar crimes, the more serious it is perceived to be. There are also implications from these consequences for perceptions of institutional effectiveness and interpersonal relationships. This suggests that future studies of the consequences of criminality, especially white-collar and corporate violations, might be directed toward the notions of risk and, eventually, social trust.

General deterrence and television cable crime: a field experiment in social control*

Abstract: This research examines the deterrent effect of a written legal threat on a group of persons who are known to be receiving an unauthorized premium cable television signal. The experiment attempts to determine (1) the overall violation rate: (2) the extent to which violators direr from a systematic random sample of cable signal customers (according to age, total household income, and gender); and (3) the deterrent effect of the threat of intervention. Additionally, a six-month follow-up was conducted to assess the duration of the threat's effect. Overall, two thirds of the subjects (n=67) reacted to the threat; the major reaction to the threat was an attempt to hide the violation. There were some differences found regarding participation in cable crime and deterrence, but none reached a reliable level of statistical significance. Regarding deterrence, the findings that males heeded the threat least and that the youngest and richest also showed low desistance rates after exposure to the threat are consistent with previous research. Regarding participation in cable crime, the youngest and richest seem to be involved more often in the pilfering of signals. The follow-up revealed that the deterrent effect of the intervention lasted at least six months. The benefits of using experimentation as a general deterrence research strategy are emphasized throughout.

Victim responses to robbery and crime control policy

Abstract: Victim responses in robbery incidents may constitute individual behavior relevant to the goal of crime control. By regulating crime outcomes it may be possible to reduce the rewards associated with criminal behavior and thereby reduce the likelihood of recurring incidents. Yet, criminal justice professionals often advocate submission to robbers' demands apparently based upon the belief that victims can and ought to exchange property losses in return for escaping physical injury. Analysis of 13-city National Crime Panel data of 3,679 robbery incidents discloses that victim resistance to execution of robbery is not often associated with serious injury but is linked to preventing the successful execution of the crime. Victims may play a critical role in the control of crime outcomes, and policy prescriptions which entail limiting the range of responses open to victims may be harmful to both the victims and the interest of society in controlling crime.