Showing papers in "Current Directions in Psychological Science in 2000"
TL;DR: Perceived collective efficacy fosters groups' motivational commitment to their missions, resilience to adversity, and performance a ccomplishments as discussed by the authors, and its centrality in how people live their lives.
Abstract: Social c ognitive t heory adopts an agentic perspective in which individuals are producers of experiences and shapers of events. Among the mechanisms of human agency, none is more focal or pervading than the belief of personal efficacy. This core belief is the foundation of human agency. Unless people believe that they can produce desired effects and forestall undesired ones by their actions, they have little incentive to act. The growing interdependence of human functioning is placing a premium on the exercise of collective agency through shared beliefs in the power to produce effects by collective action. The present article analyzes the nature of perceived collective efficacy and its centrality in how people live their lives. Perceived collective efficacy fosters groups’ motivational commitment to their missions, resilience to adversity, and performance a ccomplishments.
2,408 citations
TL;DR: The term "sexual prejudice" refers to negative attitudes toward an individual because of her or his sexual orientation as mentioned in this paper and is used to characterize heterosexuals' negative attitudes towards (a) homosexual behavior, (b) people with a homosexual or bisexual orientation, and (c) communities of gay, lesbian, and bisexual people.
Abstract: Sexual prejudice refers to negative attitudes toward an individual because of her or his sexual orientation. In this article, the term is used to characterize heterosexuals' negative attitudes toward (a) homosexual behavior, (b) people with a homosexual or bisexual orientation, and (c) communities of gay, lesbian, and bisexual people. Sexual prejudice is a preferable term to homophobia because it conveys no assumptions about the motivations underlying negative attitudes, locates the study of attitudes concerning sexual orientation within the broader context of social psychological research on prejudice, and avoids value judgments about such attitudes. Sexual prejudice remains widespread in the United States, although moral condemnation has decreased in the 1990s and opposition to antigay discrimination has increased. The article reviews current knowledge about the prevalence of sexual prejudice, its psychological correlates, its underlying motivations, and its relationship to hate crimes and other antigay...
1,000 citations
TL;DR: Twin studies offer a useful methodological shortcut, but do not show that genes are more fundamental than environments, andotype is in fact a more systematic source of variability than environment.
Abstract: Behavior genetics has demonstrated that genetic variance is an important component of variation for all behavioral outcomes, but variation among families is not. These results have led some critics of behavior genetics to conclude that heritability is so ubiquitous as to have few consequences for scientific understanding of development, while some behavior genetic partisans have concluded that family environment is not an important cause of developmental outcomes. Both views are incorrect. Genotype is in fact a more systematic source of variability than environment, but for reasons that are methodological rather than substantive. Development is fundamentally nonlinear, interactive, and difficult to control experimentally. Twin studies offer a useful methodological shortcut, but do not show that genes are more fundamental than environments.
787 citations
TL;DR: The theory that low self-esteem causes aggression was first proposed by Bau-Meister as mentioned in this paper, who found that people with low selfesteem lack confi- fence of success, whereas aggression is usually undertaken in the expectation of defeating the other person.
Abstract: A traditional view holds that low self-esteem causes ag- gression, but recent work has not confirmed this. Although aggressive people typically have high self-esteem, there are also many nonaggressive people with high self-esteem, and so newer constructs such as narcissism and unstable self- esteem are most effective at predicting aggression. The link between self-regard and ag- gression is best captured by the theory of threatened egotism, which depicts aggression as a means of defending a highly favorable view of self against someone who seeks to under- mine or discredit that view. vided strong empirical evidence that low self-esteem causes aggres- sion. Ironically, the theory seemed to enter into conventional wisdom without ever being empirically es- tablished. The view of low self-esteem that has emerged from many research studies does not, however, seem easily reconciled with the theory that low self-esteem causes aggres- sion. A composite of research find- ings depicts people with low self- esteem as uncertain and confused about themselves, oriented toward avoiding risk and potential loss, shy, modest, emotionally labile (and having tendencies toward de- pression and anxiety), submitting readily to other people's influence, and lacking confidence in them- selves (see compilation by Bau- meister, 1993). None of these patterns seems likely to increase aggression, and some of them seem likely to dis- courage it. People with low self- esteem are oriented toward avoid- ing risk and loss, whereas attacking someone is eminently risky. People with low self-esteem lack confi- dence of success, whereas aggres- sion is usually undertaken in the expectation of defeating the other person. Low self-esteem involves submitting to influence, whereas aggression is often engaged in to resist and reject external influence. Perhaps most relevant, people with low self-esteem are confused and uncertain about who they are,
528 citations
TL;DR: This paper reviewed evidence for the occurrence of positive emotions under conditions of stress, discuss the functional role that positive emotions play under such conditions, and present three types of coping that are associated with positive emotion during chronic stress.
Abstract: There is growing interest in positive aspects of the stress process, including positive outcomes of stress and antecedents that dispose individuals to appraise stressful situations more as a challenge than as a threat. Less attention has been given to the adaptational significance of positive emotions during stress or to the coping processes that sustain positive emotions. We review evidence for the occurrence of positive emotions under conditions of stress, discuss the functional role that positive emotions play under such conditions, and present three types of coping that are associated with positive emotion during chronic stress. These findings point to new research questions about the role of positive emotions during stress and the nature of the coping processes that generate these positive emotions.
519 citations
TL;DR: Among the prominent brain transformations of adolescence are alterations in the prefrontal cortex, limbic brain areas, and their dopamine input, systems that are sensitive to stressors and form part of the neural circuitry modulating the motivational value of drugs and other reinforcing stimuli as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Adolescents across a variety of species exhibit age-specific behavioral characteristics that may have evolved to help them attain the necessary skills for independence. These adolescent-related characteristics, such as an increase in risk taking, may be promoted less by the hormonal changes of puberty than by developmental events occurring in brain. Among the prominent brain transformations of adolescence are alterations in the prefrontal cortex, limbic brain areas, and their dopamine input, systems that are sensitive to stressors and form part of the neural circuitry modulating the motivational value of drugs and other reinforcing stimuli. Such developmental transformations of the adolescent brain may predispose adolescents to behave in particular ways and make them particularly likely to initiate use of alcohol and other drugs.
317 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that successful entrepreneurs appear to have higher social competence, i.e., the ability to interact effectively with others, and are better at social perception and adapting to new social situations.
Abstract: Why are some entrepreneurs so much more successful than others in starting new companies—ones that create wealth for their societies as well as themselves? Growing evidence suggests that the answer involves the influence of both cognitive and social factors. Successful entrepreneurs appear to think differently than other persons in several respects (e.g., they are less likely to engage in counterfactual thinking but more likely to show overconfidence in their judgments). Similarly, successful entrepreneurs appear to be higher in social competence—the ability to interact effectively with others (e.g., they are better at social perception and adapting to new social situations). These results suggest that the principles and findings of psychology can be invaluable to researchers in the field of entrepreneurship, providing important insights into the factors that influence entrepreneurs' success.
297 citations
TL;DR: Human beings are biologically adapted for culture in ways that other primates are not as mentioned in this paper, and the difference can be clearly seen when the social learning skills of humans and their nearest primate relatives are systematically compared.
Abstract: Human beings are biologically adapted for culture in ways that other primates are not. The difference can be clearly seen when the social learning skills of humans and their nearest primate relatives are systematically compared. The human adaptation for culture begins to make itself manifest in human ontogeny at around 1 year of age as human infants come to understand other persons as intentional agents like the self and so engage in joint attentional interactions with them. This understanding then enables young children (a) to employ some uniquely powerful forms of cultural learning to acquire the accumulated wisdom of their cultures, especially as embodied in language, and also (b) to comprehend their worlds in some uniquely powerful ways involving perspectivally based symbolic representations.
228 citations
TL;DR: For instance, this paper argued that the causal reasoning of East Asians and American causal reasoning differs significantly, whereas Americans often view social behavior primarily as the direct unfolding of dispositions, whereas East Asians understand behavior in terms of complex interactions between dispositions of the person or other object and contextual factors.
Abstract: East Asian and American causal reasoning differs significantly. East Asians understand behavior in terms of complex interactions between dispositions of the person or other object and contextual factors, whereas Americans often view social behavior primarily as the direct unfolding of dispositions. These culturally differing causal theories seem to be rooted in more pervasive, culture-specific mentalities in East Asia and the West. The Western mentality is analytic, focusing attention on the object, categorizing it by reference to its attributes, and ascribing causality based on rules about it. The East Asian mentality is holistic, focusing attention on the field in which the object is located and ascribing causality by reference to the relationship between the object and the field.
194 citations
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TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss a simple laboratory paradigm that is proving useful in the study of false memories of simple episodes and argue that similar memory errors are a natural outcome of an intelligent cognitive system, which makes inferences about incoming information.
Abstract: Remembering an episode from even the recent past may involve a blend of fiction and fact. We discuss a straightforward laboratory paradigm that is proving useful in the study of false memories of simple episodes. In this paradigm, subjects study lists of 15 related words (bed, rest, awake …) that are all related to a critical word that is not presented (sleep). Later, subjects recall and recognize the critical missing word with about the same probability that they remember words from the list. This memory illusion is resistant to people's attempts to avoid it. We argue that similar memory errors are commonplace and are a natural outcome of an intelligent cognitive system, which makes inferences about incoming information. Therefore, memory illusions, like perceptual illusions, are a consequence of normal human information processing and offer a window for examining basic cognitive processes.
191 citations
TL;DR: A computational theory of hemispheric asymmetries in perception (double filtering by frequency) is described, which concludes that Behavioral deficits due to unilateral lesions in neurological patients and neuroimaging and electrophysiological measures in normal subjects implicate posterior cortex in these hemispherical differences.
Abstract: A computational theory of hemispheric asymmetries in perception (double filtering by frequency) is described. Its central tenet is that the cerebral hemispheres first perform symmetric filtering of visual and auditory information. Functional hemispheric asymmetry arises from a second filtering stage (containing filters skewed in different directions in the two hemispheres). The first stage selects a range of task-relevant spatial or auditory frequencies from the absolute values. This range is passed to the asymmetric filters. In this way, the hemispheric difference becomes one of relative rather than absolute information. Behavioral deficits due to unilateral lesions in neurological patients and neuroimaging and electrophysiological measures in normal subjects implicate posterior cortex in these hemispheric differences.
TL;DR: In this paper, ethnicity-related stress stemming from discrimination, from stereotypes, and from conformity pressure arising from one's own ethnic group was identified, and it has been found that individuals cope with these threats in an active, purposeful manner.
Abstract: Early research on ethnicity focused on the stereotyped thinking, prejudiced attitudes, and discriminatory actions of Euro-Americans. Minority-group members were viewed largely as passive targets of these negative reactions, with low self-esteem studied as the main psychological outcome. By contrast, recent research has increasingly made explicit use of stress theory in emphasizing the perspectives and experiences of minority-group members. Several ethnicity-related stressors have been identified, and it has been found that individuals cope with these threats in an active, purposeful manner. In this article, we focus on ethnicity-related stress stemming from discrimination, from stereotypes, and from conformity pressure arising from one's own ethnic group. We discuss theory and review research in which examination of ethnicity-related outcomes has extended beyond self-esteem to include psychological and physical well-being.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that the mere existence of people with different beliefs threatens our primary basis of psychological security; we therefore respond by derogation, assimilation efforts, or annihilation.
Abstract: Terror management theory posits that awareness of mortality engenders a potential for paralyzing terror, which is assuaged by cultural worldviews: humanly created, shared beliefs that provide individuals with the sense they are valuable members of an enduring, meaningful universe (self-esteem), and hence are qualified for safety and continuance beyond death. Thus, self-esteem serves the fundamental psychological function of buffering anxiety. In support of this view, studies have shown that bolstering selfesteem reduces anxiety and that reminders of mortality intensify striving for self-esteem; this research suggests that self-esteem is critical for psychological equanimity. Cultural worldviews serve the fundamental psychological function of providing the basis for death transcendence. To the extent this is true, reminders of mortality should stimulate bolstering of one’s worldview. More than 80 studies have supported this idea, most commonly by demonstrating that making death momentarily salient increases liking for people who support one’s worldview and hostility toward those with alternative worldviews. This work helps explain human beings’ dreadful history of intergroup prejudice and violence: The mere existence of people with different beliefs threatens our primary basis of psychological security; we therefore respond by derogation, assimilation efforts, or annihilation.
TL;DR: The two-point threshold, or compass test, has been used as a measure of tactile spatial resolution; however, since it was first developed, there have been problems associated with its use as discussed by the authors, such as setting an appropriate criterion for responding "two, extreme variability both within and between subjects, and the ability of subjects to discriminate two points from one at separations well below the twopoint threshold.
Abstract: The two-point threshold, or compass test, has long been used as a measure of tactile spatial resolution; however, since it was first developed, there have been problems associated with its use. Some of these problems include setting an appropriate criterion for responding “two,” extreme variability both within and between subjects, and the ability of subjects to discriminate two points from one at separations well below the two-point threshold. Recent neurophysiological results have clarified some of the neural mechanisms responsible for spatial resolution and demonstrated the inadequacy of the two-point threshold as a measure of spatial mechanisms. Several new methods may overcome these problems and provide a valid measure of spatial resolution and a reflection of neural mechanisms.
TL;DR: For instance, this paper found that imagining a counter-factual event can make subjects more confident that it actually occurred than real-world events, and that imagination inflation can occur even when there is no overt social pressure and when hypothetical events are imagined only briefly.
Abstract: A growing body of literature shows that imagining contrary-to-truth experiences can change memory. Recent experiments are reviewed to show that when people think about or imagine a false event, entire false memories can be implanted. Imagination inflation can occur even when there is no overt social pressure, and when hypothetical events are imagined only briefly. Overall, studies of imagination inflation show that imagining a counter-factual event can make subjects more confident that it actually occurred. We discuss possible mechanisms for imagination inflation and find that, with evidence supporting the involvement of both source confusion and familiarity in creating inflation, the primary mechanism is still to be determined. We briefly review evidence on individual differences in susceptibility to inflation. Finally, the widespread use of imagination-based techniques in self-help and clinical contexts suggests that there may be practical implications when imagination is used as a therapeutic tool.
TL;DR: This paper reviewed diverse studies of the antecedents, facial display, and social consequences of embarrassment and concluded that embarrassment serves an appeasement function, reconciling social relations when they have gone awry.
Abstract: In this article, we review diverse studies of the antecedents, facial display, and social consequences of embarrassment. These studies indicate that embarrassment serves an appeasement function, reconciling social relations when they have gone awry. We then speculate about how embarrassment is elaborated into more complex social interactions, such as teasing and flirtation. We conclude by raising questions about the blush and embarrassment that await empirical consideration.
TL;DR: The Ideals Standards Model as mentioned in this paper deals with the content and functions of partner and relationship ideals in intimate relationships, and proposes three distinct categories of partner ideals (warmth-loyalty, vitality-attractiveness, and status-resources).
Abstract: This article describes the Ideals Standards Model, which deals with the content and functions of partner and relationship ideals in intimate relationships. This model proposes that there are three distinct categories of partner ideals (warmth-loyalty, vitality-attractiveness, and status-resources), and that ideals have three distinct functions (evaluation, explanation, and regulation). The model also explains how perceived discrepancies between ideals and perceptions of one's current partner or relationship can have different consequences, depending on which of two motivating forces is active (the need to see the partner or relationship positively or the need to be accurate). Recent empirical studies that support some of the main features of the model are described.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss how these subgroups differ along descriptive dimensions and in terms of their correlates in a developmental model of husband violence and suggest the importance of at least two continua (i.e., antisociality and borderline personality features) for understanding the heterogeneity in husband violence.
Abstract: Although much research on men who are violent toward their wives has involved comparisons of groups of violent and nonviolent men, there is increasing evidence that maritally violent men are not a homogeneous group. Several recent studies support a batterer typology that distinguishes maritally violent subgroups. In an effort to identify different underlying processes resulting in husband violence, this article discusses how these subgroups differ along descriptive dimensions and in terms of their correlates in a developmental model of husband violence. The results suggest the importance of at least two continua (i.e., antisociality and borderline personality features) for understanding the heterogeneity in husband violence. The results also demonstrate the necessity of further studying low levels of husbands' physical aggression and of considering batterer subtypes when designing treatment interventions.
TL;DR: Little is known about the evolutionary and brain sources of laughter, and how the accompanying positive emotions may solidify social bonds within the mammalian brain.
Abstract: Modest advances are being made in understanding the neurology and functions of laughter. The discovery of tickle-induced “laughter” in animals should facilitate the characterization of this basic emotional response of the mammalian brain. The existence of such vocal activities in species other than humans (e.g., rats) suggests that the fundamental brain processes for joyful affect may have emerged early in vertebrate brain evolution. Here, I summarize the little that we know about the evolutionary and brain sources of laughter, and how the accompanying positive emotions may solidify social bonds within the mammalian brain. Discovery of unique neurochemistries that specifically promote laughter and joy may provide clues for development of new classes of antidepressants.
TL;DR: This article explored the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in schools and examined critically the assertion that these processes are necessarily antagonistic, concluding that rewards in the form of school grades and the focus of many students on doing well, gradewise, need not necessarily interfere with learning.
Abstract: This article explores the nature of the relationship between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in schools, and in particular examines critically the assertion that these processes are necessarily antagonistic. The weight of evidence suggests that rewards in the form of school grades and the focus of many students on doing well, gradewise, need not necessarily interfere with learning for its own sake. Educational implications of these findings are considered. One such implication is that focusing on students' interests can be a valuable motivational strategy.
TL;DR: Gifted children, those with unusually high ability in one or more domains, not only develop more rapidly than typical children, but also appear to be qualitatively different as mentioned in this paper, and they have an intense drive to master, require little explicit tuition, and, if intellectually gifted, often pose deep philosophical questions.
Abstract: Gifted children, those with unusually high ability in one or more domains, not only develop more rapidly than typical children, but also appear to be qualitatively different. They have an intense drive to master, require little explicit tuition, and, if intellectually gifted, often pose deep philosophical questions. Although some psychologists have tried to account for the achievements of gifted individuals solely in terms of drive or “deliberate practice,” no evidence allows us to rule out innate differences in talent. Profiles of gifted individuals are often uneven: Extremely high ability in one area can coexist with ordinary or even subnormal ability in another area. Scientific investigation of the gifted reveals the importance of drive and hard work in achievement of any kind, and the lack of necessary correlation among abilities in different areas.
TL;DR: This paper found that infants as young as 12 to 18 months actively utilize clues to others' intentions to guide their interpretation of language, emotion, and action more generally, such as gaze direction, emotional expression, gestures, and body posture.
Abstract: Beginning in infancy, humans acquire knowledge at a pace far outstripping that found in any other species. Recent evidence indicates that interpersonal understanding—in particular, skill at inferring others' intentions—plays a pivotal role in this achievement. Infants as young as 12 to 18 months actively utilize clues to others' intentions to guide their interpretation of language, emotion, and action more generally. In the language domain, for example, on hearing a new word, infants spontaneously check the speaker for intentional clues such as gaze direction, emotional expression, gestures, and body posture, and interpret the word in light of such information. By capitalizing on information about intentions, infants are able to avoid a wide range of potential errors, and to quickly learn relevant new skills. Current research is exploring the origins and developmental course of such early-emerging interpersonal skill, ultimately with an eye to understanding how disruptions in such abilities affect childre...
TL;DR: A substantial body of evidence is reviewed showing that external environmental influences on gene activation are normally occurring events in a large variety of organisms, including humans, thus extending the model of probabilistic epigenesis.
Abstract: The central dogma of molecular biology holds that “information” flows from the genes to the structure of the proteins that the genes bring about through the formula DNA → RNA → protein. In this view, a set of master genes activates the DNA necessary to produce the appropriate proteins that the organism needs during development. In contrast to this view, probabilistic epigenesis holds that necessarily there are signals from the internal and external environment that activate DNA to produce the appropriate proteins. To support this view, I review a substantial body of evidence showing that external environmental influences on gene activation are normally occurring events in a large variety of organisms, including humans. This demonstrates how genes and environments work together to produce functional organisms, thus extending the model of probabilistic epigenesis.
TL;DR: In this article, a dynamic systems model based on a general dual developmental mechanism, adapted from Piaget and Vygotsky, is presented. But it is argued that this dual mechanism constitutes one of the few basic laws of learning and change, and is comparable to the laws of effect and contiguity.
Abstract: Dynamic systems theory conceives of development as a self-organizational process. Both complexity and order emerge as a product of elementary principles of interaction between components involved in the developmental process. This article presents a dynamic systems model based on a general dual developmental mechanism, adapted from Piaget and Vygotsky. The mechanism consists of a conservative force, further strengthening the already-consolidated level, and a progressive force, consolidating internal contents and procedures at more advanced levels. It is argued that this dual mechanism constitutes one of the few basic laws of learning and change, and is comparable to the laws of effect and of contiguity. Simulation studies suggest that this dual mechanism explains self-organization in developmental paths, including the emergence of discrete jumps from one equilibrium level to another, S-shaped growth, and the occurrence of co-existing levels.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors summarized and combined recent advances in theory and research on the relations among mental simulation, affect, and personality, and synthesized these three areas into a conceptual framework on the basis of three attributes of mental simulations.
Abstract: Recent advances in theory and research on the relations among mental simulation, affect, and personality are summarized and combined. Research has shown that (a) affect and mental simulations can influence each other, (b) mental simulations can serve diverse self-motives, and (c) personality characteristics are related to divergent functions of mental simulations. Findings in these three areas are synthesized into a conceptual framework on the basis of three attributes of mental simulations: (a) time, whether simulations are prospective or retrospective; (b) direction, whether simulations are upward or downward; and (c) focus, whether simulations are contrasted or assimilated. This integrated framework not only may enable a greater understanding of existing findings, but also suggests novel and unique predictions for future research on understanding personality processes, automaticity in simulations, and coping with life events.
TL;DR: For example, the authors argue that people tend to expect an unrealistically high payoff from successful self-change, and that overconfidence breeds false hope, which engenders inflated expectations of success and eventually the misery of defeat.
Abstract: Why do people persist in attempting to change themselves, despite repeated failure? Self-change is often perceived as unrealistically easy to achieve, in an unreasonably short period of time. Moreover, embarking on self-change attempts induces feelings of control and optimism that supersede the lessons of prior experience. Finally, people tend to expect an unrealistically high payoff from successful selfchange. Some sorts of selfchange are feasible, but we must learn to distinguish between realistic and unrealistic self-change goals, between confidence and overconfidence. Overconfidence breeds false hope, which engenders inflated expectations of success and eventually the misery of defeat.
TL;DR: The authors found that children need at least two skills in order to grasp the alphabetic principle: phonological awareness and knowledge about letters, including knowledge of letter names and letter sounds.
Abstract: Learning to read and write in English requires children to master the alphabetic principle, the idea that the letters in printed words represent the sounds in spoken words in a more or less regular manner. Children need at least two skills in order to grasp the alphabetic principle. The first is phonological awareness, or a sensitivity to the sound structure of spoken words. The second is knowledge about letters, including knowledge of letter names and knowledge of letter sounds. Recent research sheds light on these foundational skills, documenting the linguistic factors that affect children's performance and how children put their phonological skills and knowledge of letters to use in learning to read and spell.
TL;DR: A non-reductionist view of the relationship between psychological and biological concepts and data is prevalent in psychology, medicine, and basic and clinical neuroscience as discussed by the authors, which undermines the ability of psychology and related sciences to achieve their individual and combined potential.
Abstract: There has been no historically stable consensus about the relationship between psychological and biological concepts and data. A naively reductionist view of this relationship is prevalent in psychology, medicine, and basic and clinical neuroscience. This view undermines the ability of psychology and related sciences to achieve their individual and combined potential. A nondualistic, nonreductionist, noninteractive perspective is recommended, with psychological and biological concepts both having central, distinct roles.
TL;DR: This article found that gesture is related to language development rather than being independent from it, and that iconic and beat gestures coincided with the onset of sentence-like utterances separately in each of the children's two languages.
Abstract: with the development of the children’s t wo l anguages, whereas pointing types of gestures generally did not. The onset of iconic and beat gestures coincided with the onset of sentencelike utterances separately in each of the children’s two languages. The findings show that gesture is related to language development rather than being independent from it. Contrasting theories about how gesture is related to language development are discussed.
TL;DR: The extent to which visual mental imagery and visual perception share common psychological and neural mechanisms is questioned; although the research findings largely support convergence between these two processes, there are data that qualify the degree of overlap between them.
Abstract: Research on visual mental imagery has been fueled recently by the development of new behavioral and neuroscientific techniques. This review focuses on two major topics in light of these developments. The first concerns the extent to which visual mental imagery and visual perception share common psychological and neural mechanisms; although the research findings largely support convergence between these two processes, there are data that qualify the degree of overlap between them. The second issue involves the neural substrate mediating the process of imagery generation. The data suggest a slight left-hemisphere advantage for this process, although there is considerable variability across and within subjects. There also remain many unanswered questions in this field, including what the relationship is between imagery and working memory and what representational differences, if any, exist between imagery and perception.