Showing papers in "Current Directions in Psychological Science in 2007"
TL;DR: The self-control is a central function of the self and an important key to success in life as mentioned in this paper, and the exertion of self control appears to depend on a limited resource.
Abstract: Self-control is a central function of the self and an important key to success in life. The exertion of self-control appears to depend on a limited resource. Just as a muscle gets tired from exertion, acts of self-control cause short-term impairments (ego depletion) in subsequent self-control, even on unrelated tasks. Research has supported the strength model in the domains of eating, drinking, spending, sexuality, intelligent thought, making choices, and interpersonal behavior. Motivational or framing factors can temporarily block the deleterious effects of being in a state of ego depletion. Blood glucose is an important component of the energy.
2,437 citations
TL;DR: In this article, Belsky's (1997, 2005) evolutionary-inspired proposition that some children are more affected by their rearing experiences than are others was discussed. But, as pointed out by the authors, most of the research still focuses on parenting effects that apply equally to all children, thus failing to consider interaction effects, which reflect the fact that whether, how, and how much parenting influences the child may depend on the child's temperament or some other characteristic of in-individuality.
Abstract: Evidence that adverse rearing environments exert negative effects particularly on children presumed ''vulnerable'' for temperamental or genetic reasons may actually reflect something else: heightened susceptibility to the negative effects of risky environments and to the ben- eficial effects of supportive environments. Building on Belsky's (1997, 2005) evolutionary-inspired proposition that some children are more affected—both for better and for worse—by their rearing experiences than are others, we consider recent work on child vulnerability, including that involving measured genes, along with evidence showing that putatively vulnerable children are especially susceptible to both positive and negative rearing effects. We also consider methodological issues and unanswered questions in the differential-susceptibility equation. KEYWORDS—differential susceptibility; gene-environment interaction; parenting; temperament Most students of child development probably do not presume that all children are equally susceptible to rearing effects; a long history of research on interactions between parenting and tem- perament, or parenting-by-temperament interactions, clearly suggests otherwise. Nevertheless, it remains the case that most work still focuses on parenting effects that apply equally to all children—so-called main effects of parenting—thus failing to consider interaction effects, which reflect the fact that whether, how, and how much parenting influences the child may depend on the child's temperament or some other characteristic of in- dividuality. Like classic work in educational and clinical psychology on interactions between learning aptitude and treatment, research on parenting-by-temperament interactions is based on the premise that what proves effective for some individuals in fos- tering the development of some valued outcome—or preventing some problematic one—may simply not do so for others. Com- monly tested are hypotheses derived from multiple-risk/trans- actional frameworks in which individual characteristics that make children ''vulnerable'' to adverse experiences—placing them ''at risk'' of developing poorly—are mainly influential when there is at the same time some contributing risk from the environmental context. After highlighting some research of just this kind, we raise questions—on the basis of other findings—about how the first set of data has been interpreted. We advance the evolutionary- inspired proposition that some children, for temperamental or genetic reasons, are actually more susceptible to both (a) the adverse effects of unsupportive parenting and (b) the beneficial effects of supportive rearing. The validity of this claim cannot be determined, however, so long as research focuses dispropor- tionately on vulnerable (as opposed to merely susceptible) child characteristics and evaluates effects of adverse environments on problematic outcomes. What, then, would be required to distinguish vulnerability from susceptibility? We consider the answer after first reviewing research that meets the criteria for differential susceptibility. Finally, we draw conclusions and highlight some ''unknowns in the differential-susceptibility equation.''
1,278 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a perspective on adolescent risk taking grounded in developmental neuroscience is presented, which suggests that changing the contexts in which risky behavior occurs may be more successful than changing the way adolescents think about risk, and suggests that educational interventions designed to change adolescents' knowledge, beliefs, or attitudes have been largely ineffective.
Abstract: Trying to understand why adolescents and young adults take more risks than younger or older individuals do has challenged psychologists for decades. Adolescents' inclination to engage in risky behavior does not appear to be due to irrationality, delusions of invulnerability, or ignorance. This paper presents a perspective on adolescent risk taking grounded in developmental neuroscience. According to this view, the temporal gap between puberty, which impels adolescents toward thrill seeking, and the slow maturation of the cognitive-control system, which regulates these impulses, makes adolescence a time of heightened vulnerability for risky behavior. This view of adolescent risk taking helps to explain why educational interventions designed to change adolescents' knowledge, beliefs, or attitudes have been largely ineffective, and suggests that changing the contexts in which risky behavior occurs may be more successful than changing the way adolescents think about risk.
1,230 citations
TL;DR: This article reviewed findings on the structure of temperament, its relation to the Big Five traits of personality, and its links to development and psychopathology, and discussed the relation of temperament to conscience, empathy, aggression, and the development of behavior problems.
Abstract: Understanding temperament is central to our understanding of development, and temperament constructs are linked to individual differences in both personality and underlying neural function. In this article, I review findings on the structure of temperament, its relation to the Big Five traits of personality, and its links to development and psychopathology. In addition, I discuss the relation of temperament to conscience, empathy, aggression, and the development of behavior problems, and describe the relation between effortful control and neural networks of executive attention. Finally, I present research on training executive attention.
767 citations
TL;DR: Hedonic adaptation refers to the process by which individuals return to baseline levels of happiness following a change in life circumstances as mentioned in this paper, and it is a process that is not inevitable.
Abstract: Hedonic adaptation refers to the process by which individuals return to baseline levels of happiness following a change in life circumstances. Dominant models of subjective well-being (SWB) suggest that people can adapt to almost any life event and that happiness levels fluctuate around a biologically determined set point that rarely changes. Recent evidence from large-scale panel studies challenges aspects of this conclusion. Although inborn factors certainly matter and some adaptation does occur, events such as divorce, death of a spouse, unemployment, and disability are associated with lasting changes in SWB. These recent studies also show that there are considerable individual differences in the extent to which people adapt. Thus, happiness levels do change, and adaptation is not inevitable.
691 citations
TL;DR: The functional neuroanatomies of social cognition and the anterior–posterior attention systems have much in common and have implications for understanding joint attention, social cognition, and autism.
Abstract: Before social cognition there is joint processing of information about the attention of self and others. This joint attention requires the integrated activation of a distributed cortical network involving the anterior and posterior attention systems. In infancy, practice with the integrated activation of this distributed attention network is a major contributor to the development of social cognition. Thus, the functional neuroanatomies of social cognition and the anterior-posterior attention systems have much in common. These propositions have implications for understanding joint attention, social cognition, and autism.
659 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a new theoretical model, developmental intergroup theory (DIT), is proposed to address the causal ingredients of social stereotyping and prejudice, which suggests that biases may be largely under environmental control and thus might be shaped via educational, social, and legal policies.
Abstract: Social stereotyping and prejudice are intriguing phenomena from the standpoint of theory and, in addition, constitute pressing societal problems. Because stereotyping and prejudice emerge in early childhood, developmental research on causal mechanisms is critical for understanding and controlling stereotyping and prejudice. Such work forms the basis of a new theoretical model, developmental intergroup theory (DIT), which addresses the causal ingredients of stereotyping and prejudice. The work suggests that biases may be largely under environmental control and thus might be shaped via educational, social, and legal policies.
587 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors identify factors of problem-solving contexts that affect what types of problem solving strategies will be effective and discuss how this identification of factors affects what we know about developmental differences in everyday problem solving competence.
Abstract: Despite cognitive declines that occur with aging, older adults solve emotionally salient and interpersonal problems in more effective ways than young adults do. I review evidence suggesting that older adults (a) tailor their strategies to the contextual features of the problem and (b) effectively use a combination of instrumental and emotion-regulation strategies. I identify factors of problem-solving contexts that affect what types of problem-solving strategies will be effective. Finally, I discuss how this identification of factors affects what we know about developmental differences in everyday problem-solving competence.
446 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, implicit and explicit attitude measures show substantial variability in the strength of correspondence, ranging from near zero to strongly positive, across content domains, and the authors provide a framework for comprehending relations between the operation and the experience of the mind.
Abstract: Mental process and mental experience are not the same thing. The former is the operation of the mind; the latter is the subjective life that emerges from that operation. In social evaluation, implicit and explicit attitudes express this distinction. Although it is clear that they are not the same, how they differ is not. Across content domains, implicit and explicit attitude measures show substantial variability in the strength of correspondence, ranging from near zero to strongly positive. Variation in controllability, intentionality, awareness, or efficiency is thought to differentiate implicit and explicit attitudes. Dual-process theories and empirical evidence for moderating influences of implicit–explicit attitude relations provide a framework for comprehending relations between the operation and the experience of the mind.
426 citations
TL;DR: Synchrony has been applied to the study of mother-infant interaction and is suggested as a framework to study interpersonal relationships as mentioned in this paper, where the temporal coordination of micro-level social behavior is charted in its development across infancy from the initial consolidation of biological rhythms during pregnancy to the emergence of symbolic exchange between parent and child.
Abstract: Synchrony—a construct used across multiple fields to denote the temporal relationship between events—has been applied to the study of mother–infant interaction and is suggested here as a framework for the study of interpersonal relationships. Defined as the temporal coordination of micro-level social behavior, parent–infant synchrony is charted in its development across infancy from the initial consolidation of biological rhythms during pregnancy to the emergence of symbolic exchange between parent and child. Synchrony is shown to depend on physiological mechanisms supporting bond formation in mammals—particularly physiological oscillators and neuroendocrine systems such as those involving the hormone oxytocin. Developmental outcomes of the synchrony experience are observed in the domains of self-regulation, symbol use, and the capacity for empathy across childhood and adolescence. Specific disruptions to the parameters of synchrony that may be observed in various pathological conditions, such as prematur...
421 citations
TL;DR: An integrative process model of trust in dyadic relationships is presented in this article, where a brief overview of the interpersonal-trust literature is presented, followed by a brief summary of the major milestones in interpersonal trust research.
Abstract: Trust lies at the foundation of nearly all major theories of interpersonal relationships. Despite its great theoretical importance, a limited amount of research has examined how and why trust develops, is maintained, and occasionally unravels in relationships. Following a brief overview of theoretical and empirical milestones in the interpersonal-trust literature, an integrative process model of trust in dyadic relationships is presented.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the effects of hands-free cell-phone conversations on simulated driving and found that even when participants looked directly at objects in the driving environment, they were less likely to create a durable memory of those objects if they were conversing on a cell phone.
Abstract: Our research examined the effects of hands-free cell-phone conversations on simulated driving. We found that even when participants looked directly at objects in the driving environment, they were less likely to create a durable memory of those objects if they were conversing on a cell phone. This pattern was obtained for objects of both high and low relevance, suggesting that very little semantic analysis of the objects occurs outside the restricted focus of attention. Moreover, in-vehicle conversations do not interfere with driving as much as cell-phone conversations do, because drivers are better able to synchronize the processing demands of driving with in-vehicle conversations than with cell-phone conversations. Together, these data support an inattention-blindness interpretation wherein the disruptive effects of cell-phone conversations on driving are due in large part to the diversion of attention from driving to the phone conversation.
TL;DR: In this paper, the influence of color on affect, cognition, and behavior is investigated, showing that a brief glimpse of red evokes avoidance motivation and undermines intellectual performance, and that it has these effects without conscious awareness or intention.
Abstract: Color is a ubiquitous perceptual experience, yet little scientific information about the influence of color on affect, cognition, and behavior is available. Accordingly, we have developed a general model of color and psychological functioning, which we present in this article. We also describe a hypothesis derived from this model regarding the influence of red in achievement contexts. In addition, we report a series of experiments demonstrating that a brief glimpse of red evokes avoidance motivation and undermines intellectual performance, and that it has these effects without conscious awareness or intention. We close with thoughts on the need for rigorous scientific work on color psychology.
TL;DR: The authors reviewed recent research that has shown some success in improving judgment accuracy and then argued that the most common method used to investigate metacomprehension accuracy may inadvertently constrain it.
Abstract: People's judgments about how well they have learned and comprehended text materials can be important for effectively regulating learning, but only if those judgments are accurate. Over two decades of research examining judgments of text learning—or metacomprehension—has consistently demonstrated that people's judgment accuracy is quite poor. We review recent research that has shown some success in improving judgment accuracy and then argue that the most common method used to investigate metacomprehension accuracy may inadvertently constrain it. We describe a new method that sidesteps some problems of the older method and present evidence showing how people can achieve high levels of metacomprehension accuracy.
TL;DR: For instance, this article found evidence that negative emotion enhances not only the subjective vividness of a memory but also the likelihood of remembering some (but not all) event details, suggesting that engagement of emotion-processing regions (particularly the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex) relates to the encoding and retrieval of details intrinsically linked to negative items.
Abstract: There have been extensive discussions about whether emotional memories contain more accurate detail than nonemotional memories do, or whether individuals simply believe that they have remembered emotional experiences more accurately. I review evidence that negative emotion enhances not only the subjective vividness of a memory but also the likelihood of remembering some (but not all) event details. I then describe neuroimaging evidence suggesting that engagement of emotion-processing regions (particularly the amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex) relates to the encoding and retrieval of details intrinsically linked to negative items.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors review evidence of age differences in associations between loneliness and individual differences in health behaviors, stress exposure, physiological stress responses, appraisal and coping, and restorative processes.
Abstract: Levels of loneliness are relatively stable across most of adult life, but correlates of loneliness show age differences. We review evidence of age differences in associations between loneliness and individual differences in health behaviors, stress exposure, physiological stress responses, appraisal and coping, and restorative processes. The effects of each of these pathways endow loneliness with the capacity to accelerate the rate of physiological decline with age. Additional research across the lifespan is required to understand the nature of accrued loneliness effects on health behavior and physiology in the short and long term.
TL;DR: For instance, the authors reviewed the distinctive ways people perceive, evaluate, and interact with members of human categories they essentialize, and found that this mode of representing human categories is rooted in a naturalistic theory of category origins, combined with a need to explain differences that cross category boundaries.
Abstract: Psychological essentialism is an ordinary mode of category representation that has powerful social-psychological consequences. This article reviews those consequences, with a focus on the distinctive ways people perceive, evaluate, and interact with members of human categories they essentialize. Why and when people engage in this mode of thinking remain open questions. Variability in essentialism across cultures, categories, and contexts suggests that this mode of representing human categories is rooted in a naturalistic theory of category origins, combined with a need to explain differences that cross category boundaries.
TL;DR: This paper summarized findings from the growing body of research on pride and highlighted the implications of this research for a broader understanding of emotions and social behavior. But they did not discuss the relationship between self-evaluation and self-love.
Abstract: Pride, a “self-conscious” emotion involving complex self-evaluative processes, is a fundamental human emotion. Recent research provides new insights into its nature and function. Like the “basic” emotions, pride is associated with a distinct, universally recognized, nonverbal expression, which is spontaneously displayed during pride experiences. Yet, pride differs from the basic emotions in its dependency on self-evaluations and in its complex structure, which is comprised of two theoretically and conceptually distinct facets that have divergent personality correlates and cognitive antecedents. In this article, we summarize findings from the growing body of research on pride and highlight the implications of this research for a broader understanding of emotions and social behavior.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focus on uncovering the "adaptive toolbox" of domain-specific simple heuristics that real, computationally bounded minds employ, and explaining how these heuristic produce accurate decisions by exploiting the structures of information in the environments in which they are applied.
Abstract: Traditional views of rationality posit general-purpose decision mechanisms based on logic or optimization. The study of ecological rationality focuses on uncovering the “adaptive toolbox” of domain-specific simple heuristics that real, computationally bounded minds employ, and explaining how these heuristics produce accurate decisions by exploiting the structures of information in the environments in which they are applied. Knowing when and how people use particular heuristics can facilitate the shaping of environments to engender better decisions.
TL;DR: Current research supports the view that autism involves delays and deficits not only in the development of a theory of mind but also in additional aspects of social-affective information processing that extend beyond the traditional boundaries of theory ofMind.
Abstract: Two decades ago, the theory-of-mind hypothesis of autism was introduced by Baron-Cohen and his colleagues; this theory provided a unified cognitive explanation for the key social and communication symptoms in that disorder. I evaluate the theory-of-mind hypothesis in light of studies that have addressed several key questions: Do children with autism develop theory-of-mind concepts? How can we explain why some children with autism pass theory-of-mind tasks? Do deficits in theory of mind account for the major impairments that characterize autistic disorder? Current research supports the view that autism involves delays and deficits not only in the development of a theory of mind but also in additional aspects of social-affective information processing that extend beyond the traditional boundaries of theory of mind.
TL;DR: The authors reviewed research examining how interracial encounters give rise to these outcomes, zeroing in on the mediating role of self-regulation and the moderating influence of prejudice concerns, and examined factors that undermine positive interracial contact experiences, as well as those that facilitate them.
Abstract: The United States is becoming increasingly diverse, yet interracial contact continues to be awkward, if not stressful, for many. Indeed, recent research suggests that individuals often exit interracial interactions feeling drained both cognitively and emotionally. This article reviews research examining how interracial encounters give rise to these outcomes, zeroing in on the mediating role of self-regulation and the moderating influence of prejudice concerns. Given that interracial contact may be the most promising avenue to prejudice reduction, it is important to examine factors that undermine positive interracial contact experiences, as well as those that facilitate them.
TL;DR: Social cognition refers to the mental representations and processes that underlie social judgments and behavior, for example, the application of stereotypes to members of social groups as mentioned in this paper, which can be seen as a form of situated cognition.
Abstract: Social cognition refers to the mental representations and processes that underlie social judgments and behavior—for example, the application of stereotypes to members of social groups. Theories of social cognition have generally assumed that mental representations are abstract and stable and that they are activated and applied by relatively automatic, context-independent processes. Recent evidence is inconsistent with these expectations, however. Social-cognitive processes have been shown to be adaptive to the perceiver's current social goals, communicative contexts, and bodily states. Although these findings can often be given ad hoc explanations within current conceptual frameworks, they invite a fuller integration with the broad intellectual movement emphasizing situated cognition. Such an approach has already been influential in many areas within psychology and beyond, and theories in the field of social cognition would benefit by taking advantage of its insights.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors posit a domain-general principle that may account for the improvement observed in several aspects of perceptual development over the first years of life, and propose a process of perceptual narrowing, whereby the discrimination of perceptual information is broadly tuned at first, and then narrows to more selective levels with experience.
Abstract: In this paper we posit a domain-general principle that may account for the improvement that is observed in several aspects of perceptual development over the first years of life. Development during this time frame is characterized by a process of perceptual narrowing, whereby the discrimination of perceptual information is broadly tuned at first, and then narrows to more selective levels with experience. This process appears to cut across both the visual and auditory modalities, and may reflect the development of a common neural architecture.
TL;DR: To obtain a more complete account of age-related decline and preservation of visual attention, current research is beginning to explore the relation of neuroimaging measures of brain structure and function to behavioral measures ofVisual attention.
Abstract: Older adults are often slower and less accurate than are younger adults in performing visual-search tasks, suggesting an age-related decline in attentional functioning. Age-related decline in attention, however, is not entirely pervasive. Visual search that is based on the observer's expectations (i.e., top-down attention) is relatively preserved as a function of adult age. Neuroimaging research suggests that age-related decline occurs in the structure and function of brain regions mediating the visual sensory input, whereas activation of regions in the frontal and parietal lobes is often greater for older adults than for younger adults. This increased activation may represent an age-related increase in the role of top-down attention during visual tasks. To obtain a more complete account of age-related decline and preservation of visual attention, current research is beginning to explore the relation of neuroimaging measures of brain structure and function to behavioral measures of visual attention.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a different approach that is focused on capturing superior (expert) performance on representative tasks that reveal the essential characteristics of expertise in a given domain.
Abstract: Expertise researchers have traditionally shied away from studying the highest levels of achievement in favor of studying basic cognitive processes, such as memory and categorization. In this article, we present a different approach that is focused on capturing superior (expert) performance on representative tasks that reveal the essential characteristics of expertise in a given domain. In domains where expert performance is measurable, acquisition is gradual and the highest levels are only attained after 10 years of intense preparation—even for the most “talented.” Analyses of reproducibly superior performance show that it is mediated by physiological adaptations and cognitive skills acquired as a result of the cumulative effects of special practice activities (deliberate practice). It appears that the genes necessary to attain such adaptations and expert skills can be activated in healthy children—the only clear exceptions to date being genes that control body size and height. Our knowledge of how expert...
TL;DR: Understanding of the organization, development, and neural control of play in rats has provided a model with which to examine how the experiences accrued during play fighting can lead to organizational changes in the brain, especially those areas involved in social behavior.
Abstract: Social play—that is, play directed toward others—is a readily recognizable feature of childhood. In nonhuman animals, social play, especially seemingly competitive rough-and-tumble play or play fighting, has been the most studied of all forms of play. After several decades of study, researchers of play fighting in laboratory rats have pieced together the rudiments of the neural mechanisms that regulate the expression of this behavior in the mammalian brain. Furthermore, the understanding of the organization, development, and neural control of play in rats has provided a model with which to examine how the experiences accrued during play fighting can lead to organizational changes in the brain, especially those areas involved in social behavior.
TL;DR: In contrast to laboratory free recall (which emphasizes detailed and accurate remembering), conversational retellings depend upon the speaker's goals, the audience, and the social context more generally as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: In contrast to laboratory free recall (which emphasizes detailed and accurate remembering), conversational retellings depend upon the speaker's goals, the audience, and the social context more generally. Because memories are frequently retrieved in social contexts, retellings of events are often incomplete or distorted, with consequences for later memory. Selective rehearsal contributes to the memory effects, as does the schema activated during retelling. Retellings can be linked to memory errors observed in domains such as eyewitness testimony and flashbulb memories; in all of these situations, people retell events rather than engage in verbatim remembering.
TL;DR: This paper found that moral, social-conventional, and personal reasoning coexist in children's evaluations of inclusion and exclusion, and that the priority given to these forms of judgments varies by the age of the child, the context, and the target of exclusion.
Abstract: Developmental research on social and moral reasoning about exclusion has utilized a social-domain theory, in contrast to a global stage theory, to investigate children's evaluations of gender- and race-based peer exclusion. The social-domain model postulates that moral, social-conventional, and personal reasoning coexist in children's evaluations of inclusion and exclusion, and that the priority given to these forms of judgments varies by the age of the child, the context, and the target of exclusion. Findings from developmental intergroup research studies disconfirm a general-stage-model approach to morality in the child, and provide empirical data on the developmental origins and emergence of intergroup attitudes regarding prejudice, bias, and exclusion.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined how long-term retention is affected by two variables: the duration of a study session and the temporal distribution of study time across multiple sessions and found that a single session devoted to the study of some material should continue long enough to ensure that mastery is achieved but that immediate further study of the same material is an inefficient use of time.
Abstract: Because people forget much of what they learn, students could benefit from learning strategies that yield long-lasting knowledge. Yet surprisingly little is known about how long-term retention is most efficiently achieved.Hereweexaminehowretentionisaffectedbytwo variables: the duration of a study session and the temporal distribution of study time across multiple sessions. Our results suggest that a single session devoted to the study of some material should continue long enough to ensure that masteryisachievedbutthatimmediatefurtherstudyofthe same material is an inefficient use of time. Our data also showthatthebenefitofdistributingafixedamountofstudy
TL;DR: It is hypothesized that several components of human language, including some aspects of phonology and syntax, could be embedded in the organizational properties of the motor system and that a deeper knowledge of this system could shed light on how language evolved.
Abstract: Mirror neurons are a class of neurons first discovered in the monkey premotor cortex that activate both when the monkey executes an action and when it observes the same action made by another individual. These neurons enable individuals to understand actions performed by others. Two subcategories of mirror neurons in monkeys activate when they listen to action sounds and when they observe communicative gestures made by others, respectively. The properties of mirror neurons could constitute a substrate from which more sophisticated forms of communication evolved; this would make sense, given the anatomical and functional homology between part of the monkey premotor cortex and Broca's area (the “speech” area of the brain) in humans. We hypothesize that several components of human language, including some aspects of phonology and syntax, could be embedded in the organizational properties of the motor system and that a deeper knowledge of this system could shed light on how language evolved.