Showing papers in "Current opinion in food science in 2016"
TL;DR: A review on the chemistry and biochemistry of dietary polyphenols, their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, and the underlying molecular mechanisms of their involvement in inflammation mediated metabolic diseases are also discussed in this article.
Abstract: Phenolic compounds including phenolic acids, flavonoids and proanthocyanidins are widely distributed in plants as a protective mechanism against biotic and abiotic stresses. Fruits, vegetables, grains, spices and herbs are the richest source of dietary polyphenols. High intake of these foods has been linked to lowered risk of most common degenerative and chronic diseases that are known to be caused by oxidative stress. This review intends to summarize briefly recent progress on the chemistry and biochemistry of dietary polyphenols, their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, and the underlying molecular mechanisms of their involvement in inflammation mediated metabolic diseases are also discussed. Perspectives for future research are also briefly discussed.
936 citations
TL;DR: A review of recent studies on the identification, characterization, and utilization of natural food-grade emulsifiers, such as proteins, polysaccharides, phospholipids, and saponins, can be found in this paper.
Abstract: There is growing demand in the food industry for natural ingredients to fabricate ‘clean label’ products. This article provides a review of recent studies on the identification, characterization, and utilization of natural food-grade emulsifiers, such as proteins, polysaccharides, phospholipids, and saponins. Particular emphasis is given to relating the structural properties of these emulsifiers to their ability to form and stabilize emulsions. The influence of environmental stresses, such as pH, ionic strength, and temperature, on the performance of natural emulsifiers is discussed. This information should facilitate the rational selection of natural emulsifiers for applications in emulsion-based food, beverage, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical products.
319 citations
TL;DR: The natural color of foods is due primarily to carotenoids, anthocyanins, betanin and chlorophylls, either as inherent food constituents or as food or feed additives as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The natural color of foods is due primarily to carotenoids, anthocyanins, betanin and chlorophylls, either as inherent food constituents or as food or feed additives. These compounds have drawn considerable attention in recent years, not because of their coloring properties, but due to their potential health-promoting effects. Their occurrence and levels in foods, along with the factors that influence the composition, have been widely investigated. Processing effects have been actively studied. In spite of the intense search for plant and microbial sources and efforts to increase yield, few natural food color additives have reached the market. Lack of stability is a major deterrent; microencapsulation and nanoencapsulation are being advocated to minimize this problem.
311 citations
TL;DR: The present work is a review of the biotechnological and biochemical potential of microalgae in food, wherein the main functional constituent compounds are in the biomass.
Abstract: Microalgae contain several bioactive compounds that can supplement the nutritional and energy needs of the population. The biochemical composition of microalgae can be manipulated by altering the culture conditions and environmental stress to induce the microorganisms to produce high concentrations of a biocompound of interest. In addition, microalgae do not require arable land and can be grown in regions where land use change is not a concern. Thus, the present work is a review of the biotechnological and biochemical potential of microalgae in food, wherein the main functional constituent compounds are in the biomass. The biological effects of these bioactive substances and possible applications for food products are also discussed.
199 citations
TL;DR: This review highlights the recent advances in the field of probiotic beverages both from dairy and non-dairy origin.
Abstract: Nowadays there has been an increased interest in the development of new functional foods and their incorporation in a healthy diet. Such products and especially probiotics exert a beneficial effect on host gut microbiota after consumption and may be capable to prevent several diseases. Fermented beverages are traditional products that act as vehicles of probiotics in human diet. Many studies the last decades have concluded that the best substrates for the delivery of probiotics are dairy products. However lactose intolerance, high fat and cholesterol, milk allergies and also the growing trend of vegetarianism has promoted the research in the field of non-dairy probiotic products. Therefore this review highlights the recent advances in the field of probiotic beverages both from dairy and non-dairy origin.
157 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the structural and mechanical properties of such systems can be tailored to mimic that of PHO-based fat systems, which shows promise for applications in PHO free products.
Abstract: The requirement for removing partially hydrogenated oils (PHOs) in food products by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is challenging the food industry to seek out healthy replacements that do not change the physical and sensory properties of end products. This article reviews novel strategies to structure liquid oils as PHO alternatives. The oil structuring mechanisms of ethylcellulose oleogels, plant-based wax oleogels, and monoglyceride-structured emulsions are discussed in detail. The structural and mechanical properties of such systems can be tailored to mimic that of PHO based fat systems. These oil-structuring methods show promise for applications in PHO-free products.
126 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss the emerging food fraud themes, such as characterization of food fraud, drivers of supply chain fraud, traceability systems and mechanisms for deterrence, and the ongoing development of data centralization systems.
Abstract: Food supply chain fraud can arise in terms of the integrity of the food item, the processes used to produce that food item and/or the people employed and the data that accompanies the food item. Emergent food fraud themes include characterization of food fraud, drivers of supply chain fraud, traceability systems and mechanisms for deterrence. Options for action at global, supply chain and organizational levels are the ongoing development of data centralization systems especially ensuring that distinct databases can be coordinated to add value through collective data analysis, and secondly ensuring there are appropriate deterrence mechanisms in place so that food fraud mitigation moves from a stance of fraud detection to one of fraud prevention.
118 citations
TL;DR: A scientometric evaluation that highlights research trends and emerging approaches of this evolving field is presented and an insight into most commonly studied food types and drinks is provided and the most promising authenticity markers for each major group are highlighted.
Abstract: Food authentication is analytical process that validates label information about the food origin and production process. This review discusses emerging food authenticity indicators including rare earth elements, metabolic profiles, sensory profile evaluation, and microbial fingerprinting. A scientometric evaluation that highlights research trends and emerging approaches of this evolving field is presented. We analyzed and provided an insight into most commonly studied food types and drinks and highlighted the most promising authenticity markers for each major group. Finally, we discussed the data explosion that is emerging and discussed the developing trends in the field. The future of food authentication lies in Big Data since we are already collecting and analyzing huge amounts of data that converge from multiple sources. Big Data Analytics will include standardization of experiments, study design workflows, and of data reporting. Emerging data analytical tools will include integration of geographic information systems with climate information systems and metabolomics databases for precise spatio-temporal identification of food origin.
111 citations
TL;DR: In a food oral processing context, recent research indicates that tribology measurements are providing insights into several texture-related sensory percepts, but obtaining quantitative empirical relationships between the two is challenging as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Soft-tribology is emerging as an important field of research for quantifying the physics occurring during oral tribological processes. In a food oral processing context, recent research indicates that tribology measurements are providing insights into several texture-related sensory percepts, but obtaining quantitative empirical relationships between the two is challenging. Choosing a physiologically relevant tribological ‘system’ is paramount to the successful application of tribology as an indicator for texture perception; the choice of instrument, surfaces and model food system, as well as the role of saliva, should be carefully considered. Tribology and sensory perception are affected by multiple physico-chemical properties, and therefore integrative approaches that combine tribology with other characterisation techniques are necessary for mechanistic understanding on their inter-relationship.
101 citations
TL;DR: This review provides an overview of the biology of the VB NC state, its relationship to food safety, and novel methods developed for the rapid detection and identification of VBNC cells.
Abstract: The viable but non-culturable (VBNC) state is a form of dormancy employed by many bacteria as a method of survival and can be found in nearly any ecological niche. Major characteristics that distinguish dormant cells is their ability to evade detection by routine laboratory culture, to tolerate stressful environments including food pasteurization processes and antibiotics, and to resuscitate within a host and cause disease. Given these defining characteristics, these resilient microbes raise significant concern for the food industry and for the health of those consuming foods harboring these veiled pathogens. This review provides an overview of the biology of the VBNC state, its relationship to food safety, and novel methods developed for the rapid detection and identification of VBNC cells.
97 citations
TL;DR: Various potent microorganisms for single cell oils production designed for the dietary domain are discussed, which represents a promising way to produce PUFAs at lower cost and with a higher yield.
Abstract: For centuries, men have used microorganisms for their activities and abilities to produce metabolites of interest such as antibiotics or pigments. Lipids are now under the spotlight as applications can be found in several domains such as in biofuels. Lipids formed by microorganisms can also be interesting from a dietary point of view, as some microorganisms (yeast, fungi, microalgae and Thraustochytrids) are able to produce polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). These PUFAs, such as those belonging to the omega-3 and omega-6 series, are known for their benefits to human health. The use of microorganisms represents a promising way to produce PUFAs at lower cost and with a higher yield. This manuscript discusses various potent microorganisms for single cell oils production designed for the dietary domain.
TL;DR: In this paper, the effect of polymeric polyphenols (tannins) interaction with carbohydrate polymers via hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions has been investigated, and it is shown that amylose component of starch forms nondigestible complexes with tannins.
Abstract: Polyphenols are known to indirectly influence glucose metabolism, for example, via inhibition of digestive enzymes. Less clear is whether polyphenols can complex with, and directly reduce carbohydrate digestion. This is relevant because it can provide a practical mechanism to reduce caloric load of foods. Direct interaction of carbohydrates with monomeric polyphenols appears to have little practical consequence on glucose availability. Recent evidence supports strong and specific polymeric polyphenols (tannins, especially with MW > 1000) interaction with carbohydrate polymers via hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions. For example, amylose component of starch forms non-digestible complexes with tannins. This is interesting because starch is the primary dietary source of glucose. Thus research efforts in this area should focus on optimizing and uncovering consequences of starch–tannin interactions.
TL;DR: Although the WGS is mainly being applied for surveillance and outbreak investigation purposes, there is still, a strong need for harmonization of methods and consensus on suitable nomenclature and case definition, and the application of WGS in source attribution and microbial risk assessment is largely unexplored.
Abstract: As the whole genome sequencing (WGS) revolution is rapidly gaining momentum, it is essential to understand the significance of this technology and its future applications in food safety. This review discusses the recent advances concerning the use of WGS for outbreak detection and surveillance, microbial source attribution and microbial risk assessment. Although the WGS is mainly being applied for surveillance and outbreak investigation purposes, there is still, a strong need for harmonization of methods (sample preparation, sequence quality and case-definition, analysis) and consensus on suitable nomenclature (SNP versus allele level)and case definition. The application of WGS in source attribution and microbial risk assessment is largely unexplored. The use of WGS in source attribution requires the development of new modelling approaches that can handle the large amount of data and the high discriminatory power associated with WGS. For microbial risk assessment, the link with phenotypic features is crucial, but the short-comings regarding the reproducibility of genome-wide-association studies and the link to epidemiology need innovative statistical approaches. Overall, WGS data alone are of limited use without a sound public health or biological context. Defining hypotheses and research questions beforehand are crucial for the correct analysis and interpretation of WGS data.
TL;DR: There is a deep relation between enzymes and their application in food and feed industries and Immobilization of enzymes has enabled them to be employed more economically as being able to reuse them with minor loss, or without any loss in the activity.
Abstract: There is a deep relation between enzymes and their application in food and feed industries. These ‘green’ biological catalysts have altered the way we process our food. The enzymes applied in the food industry have evolved in several ways during several past decades. The desired traits as thermostability, ability to act at wide pH range, non-metal ion dependency, fast reaction rate, wide substrates utilization, etc., have been developed by using single, or integrated approaches as screening, rDNA technology, protein engineering, etc. Immobilization of enzymes has also enabled them to be employed more economically as being able to reuse them with minor loss, or without any loss in the activity. These ‘green’ molecules have exerted a great impact on human life that expresses perspectives of enzymes in the area of food industry.
TL;DR: Recent studies on therapeutic values of vinegar derived from different food sources are reviewed and possible mechanisms of therapeutic action of vinegar are discussed.
Abstract: Vinegar is a natural product derived from a process of fermentation. Carbohydrates-rich foods are excellent sources of substrate to produce vinegar. Vinegar is mainly used as an ingredient in food preparation due to its taste and aroma. It is one of the most famous folk medicines used to fight infections. Several studies have showed vinegar has a potential to ameliorate obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disorders, cancer and microbial infections. Daily intake of a drink containing 15 mL vinegar (750 mg of acetic acid) was reported to improve lifestyle-related diseases, such as hypertension, hyperlipidemia, and obesity. The presence of acetic acid and other components in vinegar could be responsible for its therapeutic effect. This paper reviews recent studies on therapeutic values of vinegar derived from different food sources. Possible mechanisms of therapeutic action of vinegar are also discussed.
TL;DR: Clear evidence of such effects in humans is still required in order to establish the potential role of food protein hydrolysates in the management of T2D, as well as different modes of inhibition which may, or may not, involve the active site of DPP-IV.
Abstract: Since drug based inhibition of dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV) is employed in type 2 (T2D) diabetes therapy, food protein hydrolysates which inhibit DPP-IV may also have potential in the management of T2D. Specific peptide motifs, consisting of an N-terminal Trp and/or a Pro at position 2, have been associated with relatively potent inhibition of DPP-IV. Different modes of inhibition which may, or may not, involve the active site of DPP-IV have been identified. Animal studies have shown that food protein hydrolysates having in vitro DPP-IV inhibitory activity generally yield antidiabetic effects in vivo . However, clear evidence of such effects in humans is still required in order to establish the potential role of food protein hydrolysates in the management of T2D.
TL;DR: The use of microorganisms to control pest and diseases at field conditions is now a reality as mentioned in this paper, however, the situation in the control of postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables is very different.
Abstract: The use of microorganisms to control pest and diseases at field conditions is now a reality. Several products are already in the market and their use is increasing every year. However, the situation in the control of postharvest diseases of fruits and vegetables is very different. The research in this area started later and despite the progress made especially in the last 20 years their commercial application is still very limited. In the present overview we discuss about this situation, expose the state of the art, the main concerns and difficulties to increase their commercial use in postharvest. We postulate than is necessary to show consistent efficacy under commercial conditions but this fact is not enough, because some BCAs with reliable performance are not in the market for a complex combination of legal and economic aspects. In the future, it will be necessary to improve the bridge between researchers and private companies.
TL;DR: Current review describes the immense potential of microbes being used as food colorants and presents an insight on novel strains and production methods which can be explored further for application in food industry.
Abstract: Synthetic food additives pose the risk of hazardous effects and toxicity to the consumers whereas the application of natural pigments as food additives is safer and in demand worldwide. Food industry worldwide is dependent on colors to make food appealing to the consumers and to add variety to the food types. Therefore, a need exists to explore the novel strains of microorganisms and suitable strategies for commercial production of microbial pigments, to meet the high demand of microbial pigments as food additives. Traditional methods of microbial isolation, development and extraction are now replaced with novel techniques and strategies through biotechnology; with the advent of fermentation technology and genetic engineering techniques. Current review describes the immense potential of microbes being used as food colorants and we also present an insight on novel strains and production methods which can be explored further for application in food industry.
TL;DR: New micro- and nano-biocarriers based on food-grade polysaccharides, proteins, lipids and their blends, coacervates and also hybrid inorganic-biological molecules provide novel platforms to enhance the bioavailability, stability and delivery efficiency of bioactive molecules in the body.
Abstract: Recent advances in nanoscience and nanotechnologies offer a revolutionary approach to the development of novel and healthier foods. Nano-technological and micro-technological carriers based on biomolecules may be tailored in order to deliver molecules, e.g., drugs, nutraceuticals and others, to any organ and tissue in the body. New micro- and nano-biocarriers based on food-grade polysaccharides, proteins, lipids and their blends, coacervates and also hybrid inorganic-biological molecules provide novel platforms to enhance the bioavailability, stability and delivery efficiency of bioactive molecules in the body.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors share insights related to the current regulatory status and literature approaches of using natural volatile antimicrobial compounds through various carriers in order to motivate the food industry to adopt such an innovative technology.
Abstract: Given that foods are dynamic systems, the improvement of classic packaging technologies (i.e., vacuum, modified atmospheres) or the development of new ones constitutes a continuous challenge for the food industry. The last decade, among the most promising packaging technologies that have received a lot of attention by the scientific community is the antimicrobial active packaging (AAP), focusing especially on the application of natural antimicrobial compounds through carriers. Among them, the volatile substances, such as essential oils, plant extracts, or ethanol are of great interest due to their ability to be easily released in the headspace of the packaging, increasing food microbial stability while mildly affecting the sensory attributes. In this context, the present article shares insights related to the current regulatory status and literature approaches of AAP using natural volatile antimicrobial compounds through various carriers in order to motivate the food industry to adopt such an innovative technology.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors consider a selected number of very recent studies where omics techniques were applied to detect food authenticity and could be implemented to ensure food integrity and postulate that significant reductions in food fraud, with the assistance of omics technologies and other approaches, will result in less food waste, decreases in energy use as well as greenhouse gas emissions, and as a direct consequence of this, increases in quality, productivity, yields, and the ability of food systems to be more resilient and able to withstand future food shocks.
Abstract: Food fraud has been identified as an increasing problem on a global scale with wide-ranging economic, social, health and environmental impacts. Omics and their related techniques, approaches, and bioanalytical platforms incorporate a significant number of scientific areas which have the potential to be applied to and significantly reduce food fraud and its negative impacts. In this overview we consider a selected number of very recent studies where omics techniques were applied to detect food authenticity and could be implemented to ensure food integrity. We postulate that significant reductions in food fraud, with the assistance of omics technologies and other approaches, will result in less food waste, decreases in energy use as well as greenhouse gas emissions, and as a direct consequence of this, increases in quality, productivity, yields, and the ability of food systems to be more resilient and able to withstand future food shocks.
TL;DR: A review of the most relevant findings concerning the starter culture developed for cocoa and coffee processing over the past 10 years, defines the reasons that have limited its implementation, and identifies areas of research that need to be addressed if the potential of the Starter culture is to be achieved as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Fermentation is one of the oldest food-processing technologies in the world. For cocoa and coffee products, microbial fermentation plays an important role in their production processes and can have major impacts on product quality and value. Cocoa and coffee are the few remaining food commodities produced on a global scale where the fermentation occurs in a spontaneous way. Although considered research has been carried out with regard to the improvement of starters cultures used in coffee and cocoa processing, very few efforts have been made for their implementation under filed conditions. This review assesses the most relevant findings concerning the starter culture developed for cocoa and coffee processing over the past 10 years, defines the reasons that have limited its implementation, and identifies areas of research that need to be addressed if the potential of the starter culture is to be achieved.
TL;DR: The potential of using information technologies, for example, data storage, communication, cloud, in tandem with data science, through the whole food chain including processing within the food industry, retailers and even consumers, will provide stakeholders with novel tools regarding the implementation of a more efficient food safety management system as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The current safety and quality controls in the food chain are lacking or inadequately applied and fail to prevent microbial and/or chemical contamination of food products, which leads to reduced confidence among consumers. On the other hand to meet market demands food business operators (producers, retailers, resellers) and regulators need to develop and apply structured quality and safety assurance systems based on thorough risk analysis and prevention, through monitoring, recording and controlling of critical parameters covering the entire product's life cycle. However the production, supply, and processing sectors of the food chain are fragmented and this lack of cohesion results in a failure to adopt new and innovative technologies, products and processes. The potential of using information technologies, for example, data storage, communication, cloud, in tandem with data science, for example, data mining, pattern recognition, uncertainty modelling, artificial intelligence, etc., through the whole food chain including processing within the food industry, retailers and even consumers, will provide stakeholders with novel tools regarding the implementation of a more efficient food safety management system.
TL;DR: Protein from canola/rapeseed, maize zein, chickpea, and insects has desirable properties for meat-analog products that are likely to be developed in the near future and temperature control during extrusion or extensional flow devices also show promise for producing meat-like structures.
Abstract: To meet the increasing need for protein-rich ingredients in the growing population, proteins from non-animal sources are being developed as potential replacements for animal-sourced protein in meat products. This review focuses on developments in the extraction, processing, and physical functionality of protein from oilseeds, grain-based prolamins, legumes, microbial, and insect sources, particularly from the past three years. Extraction techniques have been investigated to better isolate individual protein fractions or eliminate nutritionally-undesirable and functionally-undesirable phenolic compounds. Protein from canola/rapeseed, maize zein, chickpea, and insects has desirable properties for meat-analog products that are likely to be developed in the near future. Finally, temperature control during extrusion or extensional flow devices also show promise for producing meat-like structures.
TL;DR: The aim of this work is to review its current taxonomy status, incidence of Alternaria species and mycotoxins in foods, control strategies and analytical methods, and to highlight the future needs for research in this field.
Abstract: Alternaria is a fungal genus ubiquitous in the environment; many species are saprotrophs or plant pathogens, which can accumulate toxic metabolites in the edible parts of plants. Its species, as well as its mycotoxins have been isolated from a wide range of foods, such as cereals, fruits, vegetables, and their derived products. The aim of this work is to review its current taxonomy status, incidence of Alternaria species and mycotoxins in foods, control strategies and analytical methods, and to highlight the future needs for research in this field.
TL;DR: In past two decades, essential oils (EOs) based formulations have shown excellent potential against food borne molds and associated mycotoxins and may successfully replace synthetic preservatives, offering, an eco-chemical and safer approach to protect food commodities from fungal contamination and subsequent mycotoxin production.
Abstract: In past two decades, essential oils (EOs) based formulations have shown excellent potential against food borne molds and associated mycotoxins and may successfully replace synthetic preservatives, offering, an eco-chemical and safer approach to protect food commodities from fungal contamination and subsequent mycotoxin production. A number of EO based food preservatives viz. Sporan™, Promax™, ‘DMC Base Natural’, EcoPCOR, EcoTrol are commercially used and listed in ‘Generally Recognized as Safe’ category. EOs easily pass through plasma membrane causing partition in the lipids of fungal cell membrane, making it permeable for leakage of cell contents. EOs decline biosynthesis of ergosterol, the fungal specific sterol, proving their biorational mode of action. They can be economically used as fumigant in storage system.
TL;DR: Current and future advances in systems biology and metabolic network modeling are expected to allow for the joined utilization in predictive models of both phenotypic and molecular data, for the purpose of unraveling the underlying mechanisms of microbial behavior.
Abstract: Predicting survival, growth or inactivation of pathogens in foods has been one of the most productive activities within Food Microbiology research the last two decades. Aiming at the wider applicability of predictive models, software development has become an active area in foodborne pathogens modeling, with numerous applications for data storage, analysis, visualization and retrieval. At the same time, the need for describing variability in microbial models used in risk assessment motivated the development of stochastic models, i.e. models with a probabilistic structure that take into account the variability of factors affecting microbial behavior. Current and future advances in systems biology and metabolic network modeling are expected to allow for the joined utilization in predictive models of both phenotypic and molecular data, for the purpose of unraveling the underlying mechanisms of microbial behavior.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors outline the steps necessary to begin a country-wide or industry-wide vulnerability assessment and the development of a Food Fraud Prevention Strategy using the COSO accounting principles of Enterprise Risk Management (ERM).
Abstract: Food Fraud is one of the most active research and policy activities by industry and governments. While there is a tremendous amount of activity there is a need for a holistic, all-encompassing approach to focus on a prevention strategy. This paper outlines the steps necessary to begin a country-wide or industry-wide vulnerability assessment and the development of a Food Fraud Prevention Strategy. An efficient method utilizes the COSO accounting principles of Enterprise Risk Management (ERM). The first stage is a pre-filter Food Fraud Initial Screening (FFIS) and the more detailed second stage is a Food Fraud Vulnerability Assessment (FFVA). A prevention strategy is the culmination of this effort. The benefit is an efficient and effective — optimal — engagement of government and industry.
TL;DR: The implementation of control measures at pre-harvest and post-Harvest, as well as at the food handler/consumer level, will be crucial in minimizing the foodborne transmission of these parasites.
Abstract: Foodborne transmission of protozoan parasites is an emerging issue in developed countries around the world. Specifically, the parasites Cryptosporidium, Giardia and Cyclospora have been linked to numerous foodborne outbreaks of diarrheal illness. Many of these outbreaks have been associated with the consumption of fresh produce imported from developing regions, where water quality, hygiene and sanitation may be sub-optimal, and where numerous surveillance studies have demonstrated the presence of these parasites on fruits and vegetables. However, illness outbreaks have also been associated with the direct contamination of fresh produce at the food handler/consumer level. The implementation of control measures at pre-harvest and post-harvest, as well as at the food handler/consumer level, will be crucial in minimizing the foodborne transmission of these parasites.
TL;DR: New insights into C. botulinum biology, food chain transmission, evolution and impact on food safety via improved surveillance and tracing/tracking during outbreaks are revealed.
Abstract: The deadly botulinum neurotoxin formed by Clostridium botulinum is the causative agent of foodborne botulism. The increasing availability of C. botulinum genome sequences is starting to allow the genomic diversity of C. botulinum Groups I and II and their neurotoxins to be characterised. This information will impact on microbiological food safety through improved surveillance and tracing/tracking during outbreaks, and a better characterisation of C. botulinum Groups I and II, including the risk presented, and new insights into their biology, food chain transmission, and evolution.