Showing papers in "Disasters in 2006"
TL;DR: The concept of resilience is reviewed in terms of definitional issues, the role of vulnerability in resilience discourse and its meaning, and the differences between vulnerability and resilience.
Abstract: The intimate connections between disaster recovery by and the resilience of affected communities have become common features of disaster risk reduction programmes since the adoption of The Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015. Increasing attention is now paid to the capacity of disaster-affected communities to 'bounce back' or to recover with little or no external assistance following a disaster. This highlights the need for a change in the disaster risk reduction work culture, with stronger emphasis being put on resilience rather than just need or vulnerability. However, varied conceptualisations of resilience pose new philosophical challenges. Yet achieving a consensus on the concept remains a test for disaster research and scholarship. This paper reviews the concept in terms of definitional issues, the role of vulnerability in resilience discourse and its meaning, and the differences between vulnerability and resilience. It concludes with some of the more immediately apparent implications of resilience thinking for the way we view and prepare for disasters.
1,347 citations
TL;DR: This paper seeks to review the theoretical and policy linkages among disaster risk reduction, climate change and development and finds that not only does action within one realm affect capacity for action in the others, but also that there is much that can be learnt and shared between realms in order to ensure a move towards a path of integrated and more sustainable development.
Abstract: Reducing losses to weather-related disasters, meeting the Millennium Development Goals and wider human development objectives, and implementing a successful response to climate change are aims that can only be accomplished if they are undertaken in an integrated manner. Currently, policy responses to address each of these independently may be redundant or, at worst, conflicting. We believe that this conflict can be attributed primarily to a lack of interaction and institutional overlap among the three communities of practice. Differences in language, method and political relevance may also contribute to the intellectual divide. Thus, this paper seeks to review the theoretical and policy linkages among disaster risk reduction, climate change and development. It finds that not only does action within one realm affect capacity for action in the others, but also that there is much that can be learnt and shared between realms in order to ensure a move towards a path of integrated and more sustainable development.
645 citations
TL;DR: Key communalities and differences between the climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction communities are examined, and three exercises that would help to structure a multi-community dialogue and learning process are proposed.
Abstract: Over the past few decades, four distinct and largely independent research and policy communities—disaster risk reduction, climate change adaptation, environmental management and poverty reduction—have been actively engaged in reducing socio-economic vulnerability to natural hazards. However, despite the significant efforts of these communities, the vulnerability of many individuals and communities to natural hazards continues to increase considerably. In particular, it is hydrometeorological hazards that affect an increasing number of people and cause increasingly large economic losses. Arising from the realisation that these four communities have been largely working in isolation and enjoyed only limited success in reducing vulnerability, there is an emerging perceived need to strengthen significantly collaboration and to facilitate learning and information exchange between them. This article examines key communalities and differences between the climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction communities, and proposes three exercises that would help to structure a multi-community dialogue and learning process.
628 citations
TL;DR: This paper provides an overview of the relation between climate change and weather extremes, and examines three specific cases where recent acute events have stimulated debate on the potential role of climate change: the European heatwave of 2003; the risk of inland flooding; and the harsh Atlantic hurricane seasons of 2004 and 2005.
Abstract: Human emissions of greenhouse gases are already changing our climate. This paper provides an overview of the relation between climate change and weather extremes, and examines three specific cases where recent acute events have stimulated debate on the potential role of climate change: the European heatwave of 2003; the risk of inland flooding, such as recently in Central Europe and Great Britain; and the harsh Atlantic hurricane seasons of 2004 and 2005. Furthermore, it briefly assesses the relation between climate change and El Nino, and the potential of abrupt climate change. Several trends in weather extremes are sufficiently clear to inform risk reduction efforts. In many instances, however, the potential increases in extreme events due to climate change come on top of alarming rises in vulnerability. Hence, the additional risks due to climate change should not be analysed or treated in isolation, but instead integrated into broader efforts to reduce the risk of natural disasters.
538 citations
TL;DR: Evidence from the Philippines is presented that, in the limited forms in which they are currently employed, CBDP initiatives have the potential both to empower and disempower, and it is warned against treating CBDP as a panacea to disaster management problems.
Abstract: Community-based disaster preparedness (CBDP) approaches are increasingly important elements of vulnerability reduction and disaster management strategies. They are associated with a policy trend that values the knowledge and capacities of local people and builds on local resources, including social capital. CBDP may be instrumental not only in formulating local coping and adaptation strategies, but also in situating them within wider development planning and debates. In theory, local people can be mobilised to resist unsustainable (vulnerability increasing) forms of development or livelihood practices and to raise local concerns more effectively with political representatives. This paper focuses on the potential of CBDP initiatives to alleviate vulnerability in the context of climate change, and their limitations. It presents evidence from the Philippines that, in the limited forms in which they are currently employed, CBDP initiatives have the potential both to empower and disempower, and warns against treating CBDP as a panacea to disaster management problems.
493 citations
TL;DR: To do so requires a new approach to climate change risk and a change in institutional structures and relationships, and a focus on development that neglects to enhance governance and resilience as a prerequisite for managing climate change risks will do little to reduce vulnerability to those risks.
Abstract: Climate change, although a natural phenomenon, is accelerated by human activities. Disaster policy response to climate change is dependent on a number of factors, such as readiness to accept the reality of climate change, institutions and capacity, as well as willingness to embed climate change risk assessment and management in development strategies. These conditions do not yet exist universally. A focus that neglects to enhance capacity-building and resilience as a prerequisite for managing climate change risks will, in all likelihood, do little to reduce vulnerability to those risks. Reducing vulnerability is a key aspect of reducing climate change risk. To do so requires a new approach to climate change risk and a change in institutional structures and relationships. A focus on development that neglects to enhance governance and resilience as a prerequisite for managing climate change risks will, in all likelihood, do little to reduce vulnerability to those risks.
459 citations
157 citations
TL;DR: Even if groundwater use is greatly reduced and enlightened land-use practices are initiated, natural deltaic subsidence and global sea-level rise will continue to aggravate flooding, although at substantially lower rates.
Abstract: Land subsidence resulting from excessive extraction of groundwater is particularly acute in East Asian countries. Some Philippine government sectors have begun to recognise that the sea-level rise of one to three millimetres per year due to global warming is a cause of worsening floods around Manila Bay, but are oblivious to, or ignore, the principal reason: excessive groundwater extraction is lowering the land surface by several centimetres to more than a decimetre per year. Such ignorance allows the government to treat flooding as a lesser problem that can be mitigated through large infrastructural projects that are both ineffective and vulnerable to corruption. Money would be better spent on preventing the subsidence by reducing groundwater pumping and moderating population growth and land use, but these approaches are politically and psychologically unacceptable. Even if groundwater use is greatly reduced and enlightened land-use practices are initiated, natural deltaic subsidence and global sea-level rise will continue to aggravate flooding, although at substantially lower rates.
137 citations
TL;DR: An overview of financial resources is presented and the employment of a two-track approach is proposed: one track that attempts to secure climate change adaptation funding under the UNFCCC; and a second track that improves mainstreaming of climate risk management in development efforts.
Abstract: This paper examines the topic of financing adaptation in future climate change policies. A major question is whether adaptation in developing countries should be financed under the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), or whether funding should come from other sources. We present an overview of financial resources and propose the employment of a two-track approach: one track that attempts to secure climate change adaptation funding under the UNFCCC; and a second track that improves mainstreaming of climate risk management in development efforts. Developed countries would need to demonstrate much greater commitment to the funding of adaptation measures if the UNFCCC were to cover a substantial part of the costs. The mainstreaming of climate change adaptation could follow a risk management path, particularly in relation to disaster risk reduction. 'Climate-proofing' of development projects that currently do not consider climate and weather risks could improve their sustainability.
133 citations
TL;DR: The paper shows that relocated families face difficult socioeconomic challenges after relocation and regrouping, especially true with respect to employment, income, the empowerment of women and lifestyle issues.
Abstract: Planned and involuntary resettlement after natural disasters has been a major policy in post-disaster reconstruction in developing countries over the past few decades. Studies show that resettlement can result in significant adverse impacts on the resettled population. Conversely, a well-planned and managed resettlement process can produce positive long-term development outcomes. This article presents the results of a case study undertaken 11 years after the 1990 Manjil earthquake in Iran. During the reconstruction period, a policy of involuntary planned resettlement was pursued extensively. The socioeconomic changes that occurred as a consequence of this policy of involuntary resettlement are analysed. Data were collected via a questionnaire survey that involved a sample of 194 relocated households (grouped into a settlement that later became a town). The paper shows that relocated families face difficult socioeconomic challenges after relocation and regrouping. This is especially true with respect to employment, income, the empowerment of women and lifestyle issues.
127 citations
TL;DR: A survey of 388 Indonesian households displaced by the December 2004 tsunami was conducted in Aceh province in February 2005 and found that risk of death was greatest in the youngest and oldest age groups, and among females.
Abstract: A survey of 388 Indonesian households displaced by the December 2004 tsunami was conducted in Aceh province in February 2005. Of tsunami-displaced households in Aceh Barat and Nagan Raya districts, 61.8 per cent reported one or more family members as dead or missing due to the tsunami, with an overall mortality rate of 13.9 per cent (95% confidence interval (CI): 12.4-15.4). Risk of death was greatest in the youngest and oldest age groups, and among females. Overall, 36 per cent of tsunami-displaced households indicated an intention to return to their original community within three months, and displaced households residing in host communities were 2.2 (95% CI: 1.2-2.8) times more likely to state an intention to return to their original villages or another community as those residing in camps. The tsunami recovery effort should focus on strategies that facilitate either prompt return or permanent, voluntary relocation for those displaced.
TL;DR: Examination of current perceptions and practices within international aid organisations regarding the existing and potential roles of urban planning as a tool for reducing disaster risk reveals that urban planning confronts many of the generic challenges to mainstreaming risk reduction in development planning.
Abstract: The effects of ‘natural’ disasters in cities can be worse than in other environments, with poor and marginalised urban communities in the developing world being most at risk. To avoid post-disaster destruction and the forced eviction of these communities, proactive and preventive urban planning, including housing, is required. This paper examines current perceptions and practices within international aid organisations regarding the existing and potential roles of urban planning as a tool for reducing disaster risk. It reveals that urban planning confronts many of the generic challenges to mainstreaming risk reduction in development planning. However, it faces additional barriers. The main reasons for the identified lack of integration of urban planning and risk reduction are, first, the marginal position of both fields within international aid organisations, and second, an incompatibility between the respective professional disciplines. To achieve better integration, a conceptual shift from conventional to non-traditional urban planning is proposed. This paper suggests related operative measures and initiatives to achieve this change.
TL;DR: Examples of the experiences of community-based organisations (CBOs) and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) of variations in climate are presented, and how they have incorporated their findings into the design and implementation of local adaptation strategies are looked at.
Abstract: Climate change is expected to lead to an increase in the number and strength of natural hazards produced by climatic events. This paper presents some examples of the experiences of community-based organisations (CBOs) and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) of variations in climate, and looks at how they have incorporated their findings into the design and implementation of local adaptation strategies. Local organisations integrate climate change and climatic hazards into the design and development of their projects as a means of adapting to their new climatic situation. Projects designed to boost the resilience of local livelihoods are good examples of local adaptation strategies. To upscale these adaptation initiatives, there is a need to improve information exchange between CBOs, NGOs and academia. Moreover, there is a need to bridge the gap between scientific and local knowledge in order to create projects capable of withstanding stronger natural hazards.
TL;DR: Mercy Corps' experience in Aceh demonstrates that cash disbursements can be safely delivered in a widespread manner in emergencies, and that when implemented on a short-term basis, can have positive impacts at the individual and community level.
Abstract: Cash for work (CFW) programmes are utilised in various disaster and emergency contexts and were a prominent component of the tsunami response in Aceh province, Indonesia. This paper describes Mercy Corps’ CFW programme, discusses CFW implementation experiences and provides key recommendations for similar programmes in future emergencies. For the majority of CFW participants and their households, CFW was the only source of household income and 93 per cent of household incomes were attributable to it. The CFW programme empowered displaced populations to return to their communities; 91 per cent of participants indicated that CFW facilitated their return. Other reported psychosocial benefits included providing productive activities and giving communities an opportunity to work together. Mercy Corps’ experience in Aceh demonstrates that cash disbursements can be safely delivered in a widespread manner in emergencies, and that when implemented on a short-term basis, can have positive impacts at the individual and community level.
TL;DR: Psychological instruments suitable for screening children and adolescents in emergency and disaster contexts for four different types of post-traumatic responses: post- traumatic stress disorder; depression; anxiety disorders; and behavioural disorders are reviewed.
Abstract: Children and adolescents are among the most vulnerable members of communities affected by disasters and emergencies There is a tremendous need for a systematic post-disaster psychological assessment of children and adolescents in order to understand better post-traumatic symptomatology in children and to identify populations that require an early intervention This article reviews psychological instruments that are suitable for screening children and adolescents in emergency and disaster contexts for four different types of post-traumatic responses: post-traumatic stress disorder; depression; anxiety disorders; and behavioural disorders A description of each instrument and psychometric data are provided, along with recommendations on the most appropriate instruments to be utilised in different emergency environments and a summary of previous post-disaster evaluations that have used each type In addition to selecting apposite instruments, other important issues that should be taken into account when conducting post-emergency mental health needs appraisals of children and adolescents are discussed
TL;DR: The study found that no significant organisational learning occurred within Turkish disaster management following the earthquakes in Erzincan (1992), Dinar (1995) and Ceyhan (1998), while the 'symmetry-breaking' Marmara earthquake of 1999 initiated a 'double loop' learning process that led to change in the organisational, technical and cultural aspects ofTurkish disaster management.
Abstract: This paper examines the problems associated with inter-organisational learning and adaptation in the dynamic environments that characterise disasters. The research uses both qualitative and quantitative methods to investigate whether organisational learning took place during and in the time in between five disaster response operations in Turkey. The availability of information and its exchange and distribution within and among organisational actors determine whether self-adaptation happens in the course of a disaster response operation. Organisational flexibility supported by an appropriate information infrastructure creates conditions conducive to essential interaction and permits the flow of information. The study found that no significant organisational learning occurred within Turkish disaster management following the earthquakes in Erzincan (1992), Dinar (1995) and Ceyhan (1998). By contrast, the 'symmetry-breaking' Marmara earthquake of 1999 initiated a 'double loop' learning process that led to change in the organisational, technical and cultural aspects of Turkish disaster management, as revealed by the Duzce earthquake response operations.
TL;DR: It is suggested that vulnerability should be re-conceptualised as endogenous to livelihoods systems in violent settings and a livelihoods model adapted for complex humanitarian emergencies is presented.
Abstract: This paper explores the nature of the violence that characterises complex humanitarian emergencies and the related implications for modelling livelihoods systems. While noting the importance of livelihoods approaches in complex humanitarian emergencies, it deliberates the limitations of sustainable livelihoods frameworks when applied in environments marked by protracted instability. Adaptations to the model are discussed, with a particular focus on the relationships among violence, assets and liabilities within livelihoods systems. Political economy of violence theories intimate that the assets on which livelihoods systems are constructed in peaceful times may instead become life-and livelihood-threatening liabilities in periods of conflict. Adaptations to livelihood systems in violent settings require that analysts consider violence from policy, institutional and process perspectives. It is suggested that vulnerability should be re-conceptualised as endogenous to livelihoods systems in violent settings. Building on the work of others, a livelihoods model adapted for complex humanitarian emergencies is presented.
TL;DR: It appears that the floods mainly affected wealthier households, as these more frequently lost houses and cattle, and the importance of ploughs and cattle for local support mechanisms, which reduced the capacities of communities to recover from the disaster.
Abstract: Massive floods hit Mozambique in 2000.1 Many of the affected regions benefited from external aid. This paper investigates how the floods impacted on two communities in the interior of the Limpopo Valley, which did not receive significant assistance during the event and in the immediate aftermath. Drawing on the livelihood approach, it focuses on the role of two types of local resources: knowledge and social capital. The paper shows that the scale of the 2000 floods surpassed the response capacity of these resources and looks at how wealth and gender influenced access by households to the local support mechanisms that enhance survival and recovery. It appears that the floods mainly affected wealthier households, as these more frequently lost houses and cattle. The paper points to the importance of ploughs and cattle for local support mechanisms, which, in turn, most likely reduced the capacities of communities to recover from the disaster.
TL;DR: A reassessment of mortality data from Kosovo and Badghis, Afghanistan revealed that, given the same number of clusters, changing sample size had a relatively small impact on the precision of the estimate of mortality.
Abstract: A good estimate of the design effect is critical for calculating the most efficient sample size for cluster surveys. We reviewed the design effects for seven nutrition and health outcomes from nine population-based cluster surveys conducted in emergency settings. Most of the design effects for outcomes in children, and one-half of the design effects for crude mortality, were below two. A reassessment of mortality data from Kosovo and Badghis, Afghanistan revealed that, given the same number of clusters, changing sample size had a relatively small impact on the precision of the estimate of mortality. We concluded that, in most surveys, assuming a design effect of 1.5 for acute malnutrition in children and two or less for crude mortality would produce a more efficient sample size. In addition, enhancing the sample size in cluster surveys without increasing the number of clusters may not result in substantial improvements in precision.
TL;DR: The study shows that some theoretical drawbacks commonly associated with the use of cash in DDR processes may indeed bear out in practice, and argues that the utility of cash transfers in DDR is affected by a variety of factors that go far beyond the simple choice of employing cash, most notably decisions on payment location, eligibility criteria and targeting.
Abstract: This paper analyses the relevance and potential of cash transfers as part of the disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) assistance packages provided to ex-combatants in transitions from war to peace. To this end, a theoretical framework is established that permits the identification of the advantages and disadvantages of using cash in DDR. Subsequently, an empirical analysis is carried out to compare selected theoretical assumptions on the use of cash with the reality of lessons learned from recent experience in Sierra Leone and other African countries. The study shows that some theoretical drawbacks commonly associated with the use of cash in DDR processes may indeed bear out in practice. At the same time, though, the paper argues that the utility of cash transfers in DDR is affected by a variety of factors that go far beyond the simple choice of employing cash, most notably decisions on payment location, eligibility criteria and targeting.
TL;DR: The World Disasters Report 2005: Focus on information in disasters, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies as discussed by the authors was published in 2005, focusing on information-in-disaster.
Abstract: Book reviewed in this article:
World Disasters Report 2005: Focus on information in disasters, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
TL;DR: The authors conclude that cash-based interventions are a feasible option in complex emergencies as well as in highly insecure environments as long as appropriate modalities are employed and objectives are clearly set in accordance with the needs and the context.
Abstract: Commodity distributions, the predominant relief response, are subject to growing criticism, while donors and humanitarian actors are increasingly viewing cash-based interventions as a viable alternative. This paper aims to contribute to the current debate on cash-based interventions by drawing on the experience of Action Contre la Faim in southern Somalia, where it has implemented cash for work programmes since 2004. The authors conclude that cash-based interventions are a feasible option in complex emergencies as well as in highly insecure environments as long as appropriate modalities are employed and objectives are clearly set in accordance with the needs and the context. Cash as a relief response offers wide-reaching possibilities for the future from both the perspective of the donor/agency and the standpoint of the beneficiary. It enables the beneficiaries to take control of the relief themselves and to adapt it to their individual requirements in a timely manner.
TL;DR: The T-Square method provides a population estimate based on analysis of the spatial distribution of housing units taken throughout a site based on extrapolating the average population size living in square blocks of known area to the total site surface.
Abstract: Emergencies resulting in large-scale displacement often lead to populations resettling in areas where basic health services and sanitation are unavailable. To plan relief-related activities quickly, rapid population size estimates are needed. The currently recommended Quadrat method estimates total population by extrapolating the average population size living in square blocks of known area to the total site surface. An alternative approach, the T-Square, provides a population estimate based on analysis of the spatial distribution of housing units taken throughout a site. We field tested both methods and validated the results against a census in Esturro Bairro, Beira, Mozambique. Compared to the census (population: 9,479), the T-Square yielded a better population estimate (9,523) than the Quadrat method (7,681; 95% confidence interval: 6,160–9,201), but was more difficult for field survey teams to implement. Although applicable only to similar sites, several general conclusions can be drawn for emergency planning.
TL;DR: The rise of and the problems facing two 'El Niño' platforms are traced: one in Ica, a city on the Peruvian coast that flooded unexpectedly in January 1998, and one in Ayacucho, which saw a climate change-induced drought around the same time.
Abstract: Climate change is expected to lead to greater extremes (droughts and floods) in river regimes around the world. While the number of major calamities is predicted to rise, the efforts of the public sector, experts and local stakeholders are badly coordinated. Consequently, aid does not reach target groups, resulting in unnecessary losses. Hence, there is a need for more participatory and integrative approaches. To ensure a more concerted response to climate-induced disasters, stakeholders could coordinate and negotiate within Multi-Stakeholder Platforms. Such roundtables are increasingly being established for vision-building and integrated water resource management, but could be employed in disaster management as well. After discussing the advantages and disadvantages of participation, this article trace the rise of and the problems facing two 'El Nino' platforms: one in Ica, a city on the Peruvian coast that flooded unexpectedly in January 1998, and one in Ayacucho, which saw a climate change-induced drought around the same time. The issue of internal and external legitimacy receives particular emphasis.
TL;DR: The paper's conclusion tries to make sense of the persistence of corruption in social and political life, and assess the capacity of ordinary citizens to reverse their predicament.
Abstract: This paper draws on two periods of field research, conducted in 2004, to consider the state of governance in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The first measures the paralysing impact of illegal taxation on riverine trade in the western provinces; the second documents civilian attempts to seek safety from violence in the troubled east, and evaluates third-party efforts to provide protection and security. Analysis of study findings suggests that the DRC's current governance crisis is neither historically novel nor driven exclusively by mineral resources, extraction rights or trafficking. Rather, government by predation is an endemic and systematic feature of the civil and military administration, ensuring the daily economic survival of soldiers and officials, who are able to wield their authority in a ‘riskfree’ environment, without oversight or accountability. The paper's conclusion tries to make sense of the persistence of corruption in social and political life, and assess the capacity of ordinary citizens to reverse their predicament.
TL;DR: With more than 42,000 measles deaths avoided for every one million US dollars spent, the catch-up and follow-up measles campaigns in Afghanistan are an excellent public health investment for precluding childhood mortality in a country affected by a complex emergency.
Abstract: This paper assesses the cost-effectiveness of, and the return on the investment in, the 2002 catch-up and the 2003 follow-up measles campaigns in Afghanistan from the perspective of the donor. The catch-up campaign targeted nearly 12 million children aged between six months and 12 years, while the follow-up campaign targeted over five million children aged between 9 and 59 months. Both campaigns successfully vaccinated approximately 96 per cent of the respective target populations, and are expected to avert an estimated 301,000 measles deaths over the next 10 years. The average cost per dose of measles vaccine delivered was USD 0.40. The cost per death prevented is USD 23.6, assuming a case fatality rate of 10 per cent and a discount rate of three per cent. With more than 42,000 measles deaths avoided for every one million US dollars spent, the campaigns are an excellent public health investment for precluding childhood mortality in a country affected by a complex emergency.
TL;DR: The need for humanitarian and development actors to grasp better the potential risks and opportunities related to privatisation and outsourcing with a view to supplying effective protection and assistance to communities affected by war is highlighted.
Abstract: The tendency today to privatise many activities hitherto considered the exclusive preserve of the state has given rise to sharp debate The specific nature of humanitarian emergencies elucidates in particularly stark contrast some of the main challenges connected to the privatisation and outsourcing of essential public services, such as the provision of drinking water and health care Privatising the realms of defence and security, which are at the very core of state prerogative, raises several legal and humanitarian concerns This article focuses on the roles and responsibilities of the various parties involved in armed conflicts, especially those of private companies engaged in security, intelligence and interrogation work, and in the provision of water supply and health services It highlights the need for humanitarian and development actors to grasp better the potential risks and opportunities related to privatisation and outsourcing with a view to supplying effective protection and assistance to communities affected by war
TL;DR: This editorial provides a basic introduction to the role of cash transfers in emergencies— the focus of this mini special issue of Disasters—drawing on ongoing research at the London-based Overseas Development Institute (ODI), and suggests that the dominance of commodity-based approaches is perhaps starting to erode.
Abstract: This editorial provides a basic introduction to the role of cash transfers in emergencies— the focus of this mini special issue of Disasters—drawing on ongoing research at the London-based Overseas Development Institute (ODI) (Harvey, 2005). This mini special issue is unique in that it is being published in conjunction with a special issue of Development Policy Review that concentrates on the role of cash transfers in longer-term development. The papers in both journals highlight the growing interest in cash transfers as an instrument of relief and as part of longer-term social protection and safety net strategies and the linkages between them. Most relief has traditionally been in-kind and taken the form of food aid, shelter materials, seeds and other items, such as blankets or buckets. This does not have to be the case; whenever in-kind assistance is provided, people could, in theory, be given cash, enabling them to decide what they most need themselves and to buy it in local markets. Proponents of cash-based approaches in emergency relief argue that they can be more cost-effective and timely, give recipients greater choice and dignity, and have beneficial knock-on effects on local economic activity. Sceptics contend that they are often impractical because they incur additional risks of insecurity and corruption, and maintain that cash may be more difficult to target than commodities. Even where cashbased approaches are feasible, there are concerns about the exclusion of women, that recipients may misuse cash and that it may have negative effects on local economies and could fuel conflicts. A review of the literature on cash-based responses in emergencies produced two main findings (Harvey, 2005). The first is that cash and voucher approaches remain largely underutilised in the humanitarian sector, which still mostly provides people with food, seeds, plastic sheeting and water containers, rather than giving them the money to buy these items themselves. The second finding, however, is that there is an increasing amount of experience of cash and voucher approaches, and that the dominance of commodity-based approaches is perhaps starting to erode. Cash for work (CFW) remains the most common type of cash-based emergency response. There is also a developing body of experience of cash grants, with Bam, Iran, Pakistan and Somalia, as well as the response to the December 2004 tsunami, serving as recent cases in point. Vouchers are increasingly being employed as an alternative to seeds. In the West, of course, cash has long been used for long-term welfare payments and in response to emergencies, both through the insurance system and as part of relief action. Nor, indeed, are cash-based responses especially new. In Hunger and Public Action, Dreze and Sen (1989) show that they have a long history in China and India, and were an important feature of famine response in the 1980s in Botswana, Cape Verde and Ethiopia.
TL;DR: An appropriate strategic policy approach could be developed by integrating the 'open' and 'closed' system components of an island setting by exploiting the 'specificities' of such a context.
Abstract: Viewing an insular setting as a distinct risk environment, an effort is made here to develop a methodology for identifying core issues related to earthquake risk and disaster protection policy, adjusted to the 'specificities' of such a context. The methodology's point of departure is the inherent condition of the 'island operating as a closed system', requiring an attempt to assess and optimise local capacity (social, political, economic, institutional and technical) to deal with an earthquake emergency. The island is then treated as an 'open system', implying that in the event of a disaster, it should be able to maximise its ability to receive and distribute external aid and to manage effectively population evacuation and inflows/outflows of aid resources. Hence, an appropriate strategic policy approach could be developed by integrating the 'open' and 'closed' system components of an island setting. Three islands from the Aegean Archipelagos in Greece-Chios, Kos and Nissyros-serve as case study areas. Language: en