Showing papers in "Earth Moon and Planets in 2016"

The moon: an archive of small body migration in the solar system

Abstract: The Moon is an archive of impact cratering in the Solar System throughout the past 4.5 billion years. It preserves this record better than larger, more complex planets like the Earth, Mars and Venus, which have largely lost their ancient crusts through geological reprocessing and hydrospheric/atmospheric weathering. Identifying the parent bodies of impactors (i.e. asteroid bodies, comets from the Kuiper belt or the Oort Cloud) provides geochemical and chronological constraints for models of Solar System dynamics, helping to better inform our wider understanding of the evolution of the Solar System and the transfer of small bodies between planets. In this review article, we discuss the evidence for populations of impactors delivered to the Moon at different times in the past. We also propose approaches to the identification and characterisation of meteoritic material on the Moon in the context of future lunar exploration efforts.

A Review of Cometary Outbursts at Large Heliocentric Distances

Abstract: The outbursts of comets, sudden large increases in their luminosity, are still very interesting and mysterious signs of activity of this celestial bodies. Most of the cometary outbursts are taking place at heliocentric distances where sublimation of water ice plays an important role in the activity of comets. However, the phenomenon is also observed far away from the Sun (i.e. ≃5–20 au) where the sublimation of water ice is negligible and the activity of comets is dominated by more volatile chemicals. Not only typical comets show ‘cometary-like’ activity but also Centaurs. In addition to the long-term changes in brightness related to heliocentric distances and short-periodic variations connected with the rotation of the nucleus, they also exhibit a random variations in luminosity which are similar to the cometary outbursts. Paper presents an overview of the most likely hypotheses and models which try to explain this phenomenon.

3D Direct Simulation Monte Carlo Modelling of the Inner Gas Coma of Comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko: A Parameter Study

Abstract: Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) is a powerful numerical method to study rarefied gas flows such as cometary comae and has been used by several authors over the past decade to study cometary outflow. However, the investigation of the parameter space in simulations can be time consuming since 3D DSMC is computationally highly intensive. For the target of ESA's Rosetta mission, comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, we have identified to what extent modification of several parameters influence the 3D flow and gas temperature fields and have attempted to establish the reliability of inferences about the initial conditions from in situ and remote sensing measurements. A large number of DSMC runs have been completed with varying input parameters. In this work, we present the simulation results and conclude on the sensitivity of solutions to certain inputs. It is found that among cases of water outgassing, the surface production rate distribution is the most influential variable to the flow field.

Santa Lucia (2008) (L6) Chondrite, a Recent Fall: Composition, Noble Gases, Nitrogen and Cosmic Ray Exposure Age

Abstract: The Santa Lucia (2008)—one the most recent Argentine meteorite fall, fell in San Juan province, Argentina, on 23 January 2008. Several masses (total ~6 kg) were recovered. Most are totally covered by fusion crust. The exposed interior is of light-grey colour. Chemical data [olivine (Fa24.4) and low-Ca pyroxene (En77.8 Fs20.7 Wo1.6)] indicate that Santa Luica (2008) is a member of the low iron L chondrite group, corresponding to the equilibrated petrologic type 6. The meteorite name was approved by the Nomenclature Committee (NomCom) of the Meteoritical Society (Meteoritic Bulletin, no. 97). We report about the chemical composition of the major mineral phases, its bulk trace element abundance, its noble gas and nitrogen data. The cosmic ray exposure age based on cosmogenic 3He, 21Ne, and 38Ar around 20 Ma is comparable to one peak of L chondrites. The radiogenic K–Ar age of 2.96 Ga, while the young U, Th–He are of 1.2 Ga indicates that Santa Lucia (2008) lost radiogenic 4He more recently. Low cosmogenic (22Ne/21Ne)c and absence of solar wind noble gases are consistent with irradiation in a large body. Heavy noble gases (Ar/Kr/Xe) indicated trapped gases similar to ordinary chondrites. Krypton and neon indicates irradiation in large body, implying large pre-atmospheric meteoroid.

Space weather at comet 67p/churyumov-Gerasimenko before its perihelion

Abstract: Interplanetary scintillation observations, as well as the ENLIL 3D-MHD model when employed either separately or in combination with the observations, enable the making of predictions of the solar wind density and speed at locations in the inner heliosphere. Both methods are utilized here to predict the arrival at the Rosetta spacecraft and its adjacent comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko of, flare related, interplanetary propagating shocks and coronal mass ejections in September 2014. The predictions of density and speed variations at the comet are successfully matched with signatures recorded by the magnetometer and the ion and electron sensor instruments in the Rosetta Plasma Package, thereby providing confidence that the signatures recorded aboard the spacecraft were solar related. The plasma perturbations which were detected some 9–10 days after significant flaring in September 2014 are interpreted to have been signatures of the arrivals of three coronal mass ejection related shocks at the comet. Also, a solar energetic particle event was recorded at 3.7 AU within ~30 min of the onset of a flare by the Standard Radiation Monitor aboard Rosetta.

Mission to Mars: Adaptive Identifier for the Solution of Inverse Optical Metrology Tasks

Abstract: A human mission to Mars requires the solution of many problems that mainly linked to the safety of life, the reliable operational control of drinking water as well as health care. The availability of liquid fuels is also an important issue since the existing tools cannot fully provide the required liquid fuels quantities for the mission return journey. This paper presents the development of new methods and technology for reliable, operational, and with high availability chemical analysis of liquid solutions of various types. This technology is based on the employment of optical sensors (such as the multi-channel spectrophotometers or spectroellipsometers and microwave radiometers) and the development of a database of spectral images for typical liquid solutions that could be the objects of life on Mars. This database exploits the adaptive recognition of optical images of liquids using specific algorithms that are based on spectral analysis, cluster analysis and methods for solving the inverse optical metrology tasks.

Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Investigation on Mars

Abstract: Natural electromagnetic (EM) signals of extremely low frequencies (ELF, 3 Hz–3 kHz) can be used to study many of the electromagnetic processes and properties occurring in the Martian environment. Sources of these signals, related to electrical activity in the atmosphere, are very significant since they can influence radio wave propagation on the planet, the atmospheric composition, and the ionospheric structure. In addition, such EM signals can be employed in many purposes such as: surveying the subsurface of Mars or studying the impact of the space weather on the Martian ionosphere. As ELF waves propagate on very long distances, it is possible to explore properties of the entire planet using single-station recordings. In this study, we propose an experiment that allows measuring ELF signals from the Martian surface. Such measurements can be used for detection of electric discharges in the atmosphere and water reservoirs in the planetary subsurface.

Transport and Distribution of Hydroxyl Radicals and Oxygen Atoms from H2O Photodissociation in the Inner Coma of Comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

Abstract: With a combination of the Direct Simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) calculation and test particle computation, the ballistic transport process of the hydroxyl radicals and oxygen atoms produced by photodissociation of water molecules in the coma of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko is modelled. We discuss the key elements and essential features of such simulations which results can be compared with the remote-sensing and in situ measurements of cometary gas coma from the Rosetta mission at different orbital phases of this comet.

Gravitational Shifts and the Core of Perseid Meteoroid Stream

Abstract: The article contains comparison between the simulation results of the Perseid meteoroid stream orbital evolution with observing results of real activity in order to comprehend how strong the stream have to be perturbed by Jupiter or Saturn to cause Perseid outburst. Also the prospects for the period of next perturbation (2015–2017) are discussed.

Treatment of Viscosity in the Shock Waves Observed After Two Consecutive Coronal Mass Ejection Activities CME08/03/2012 and CME15/03/2012

Abstract: A coronal mass ejection (CME) is one of the most the powerful activities of the Sun. There is a possibility to produce shocks in the interplanetary medium after CMEs. Shock waves can be observed when the solar wind changes its velocity from being supersonic nature to being subsonic nature. The investigations of such activities have a central place in space weather purposes, since; the interaction of shocks with viscosity is one of the most important problems in the supersonic and compressible gas flow regime (Blazek in Computational fluid dynamics: principles and applications. Elsevier, Amsterdam 2001). The main aim of present work is to achieve a search for the viscosity effects in the shocks occurred after two consecutive coronal mass ejection activities in 2012 (i.e. CME08/03/2012 and CME15/03/2012).

A Search for Meteoroid Lunar Impact Generated Electromagnetic Pulses

Abstract: Lunar white light flashes associated with meteoroid impacts are now regularly observed using modest optical instrumentation. In this paper, we hypothesize that the developing, optically-dense hot ejecta cloud associated with these hypervelocity impacts also produce an associated complex plasma component that rapidly evolves resulting in a highly-transient electro magnetic pulse (EMP) in the VHF/UHF spectral region. Discovery of the characteristics and event frequency of impact EMPs would prove interesting to meteoroid flux and complex plasma physics studies especially if EMPs from the same event are detected from at least two locations on the Earth with relative delays appropriate to the propagation paths. We describe a prototype observational search, conducted in May 2014, for meteoroid lunar-impact EMPs that was conducted using simultaneous, overlapping-band, UHF radio observations at the Arecibo (AO; Puerto Rico) and Haystack (HO, Massachusetts, USA) Observatories. Monostatic/bistatic lunar radar imaging observations were also performed with HO transmitting and HO/AO receiving to confirm tracking, the net delay, and the pointing/timing ephemeris at both observatories. Signal analysis was performed using time–frequency signal processing techniques. Although, we did not conclusively identify EMP returns, this search detected possible EMPs and we have confirmed the search paradigm and established the sensitivity of the AO–HO system in detecting the hypothesized events. We have also characterized the difficult radio-frequency interference environment surrounding these UHF observations. We discuss the wide range of terrestrial-origin, Moon-bounce signals that were observed which additionally validate the observational technique. Further observations are contemplated.

Predictions for Dusty Mass Loss from Asteroids During Close Encounters with Solar Probe Plus

Abstract: The Solar Probe Plus (SPP) mission will explore the Sun’s corona and innermost solar wind starting in 2018. The spacecraft will also come close to a number of Mercury-crossing asteroids with perihelia less than 0.3 AU. At small heliocentric distances, these objects may begin to lose mass, thus becoming “active asteroids” with comet-like comae or tails. This paper assembles a database of 97 known Mercury-crossing asteroids that may be encountered by SPP, and it presents estimates of their time-dependent visible-light fluxes and mass loss rates. Assuming a similar efficiency of sky background subtraction as was achieved by STEREO , we find that approximately 80 % of these asteroids are bright enough to be observed by the Wide-field Imager for SPP (WISPR). A model of gas/dust mass loss from these asteroids is developed and calibrated against existing observations. This model is used to estimate the visible-light fluxes and spatial extents of spherical comae. Observable dust clouds occur only when the asteroids approach the Sun closer than 0.2 AU. The model predicts that during the primary SPP mission between 2018 and 2025, there should be 113 discrete events (for 24 unique asteroids) during which the modeled comae have angular sizes resolvable by WISPR. The largest of these correspond to asteroids 3200 Phaethon, 137924, 155140, and 289227, all with angular sizes of roughly 15–30 arcminutes. We note that the SPP trajectory may still change, but no matter the details there should still be multiple opportunities for fruitful asteroid observations.

Modeling of Landslides in Valles Marineris, Mars, and Implications for Initiation Mechanism

Abstract: The Valles Marineris canyon system in Mars shows large landslides across its walls, which can be 40 km wide and up to 60 km long, with fall scarps height as high as 7 km. These landslides were produced through a large mass movement at high speed by gravity across the trough floor. Although the triggering factors are unclear, several mechanisms have been proposed as, among others, large amounts of subsurface water, quake produced through normal faulting close to the canyon walls, and meteoritic impacts. In this work we examine the limit equilibrium slope stability of three landslides (placed respectively at Ius, Candor, and Melas Chasmata), which can be considered representative, with the aims of constraining their formation conditions. Our results suggest that external factors (as high pore fluid pressure, seismic loading or rock mass disturbance) do not seem necessary for the failure of slopes if they are composed of unconsolidated materials, while high pore water pressure or ground acceleration are needed to trigger slides in slopes composed of strong basaltic-like materials. Moreover, the presence of sub-surface ice would contribute to slope stability. As a whole, our findings point to ground shaking due to meteorite impacts as the main triggering force for most landslides in the Valles Marineris.

The Northern ω-Scorpiid Meteoroid Stream: Orbits and Emission Spectra

Abstract: We analyze the activity of the Northern ω-Scorpiid meteor shower between 2010 and 2012. For this purpose we have employed an array of low-lux CCD video cameras and spectrographs deployed at different astronomical observatories in Spain. As a result of our survey, the atmospheric trajectory and radiant position of 11 of these meteor events were obtained. The tensile strength and orbital parameters of the progenitor meteoroids have been also calculated. The calculated orbital data and the behaviour of these meteoroids in the atmosphere are compatible with an asteroidal origin of this stream. In addition, we discuss a unique emission spectrum recorded for one of these meteors. This is, to our knowledge, the first North ω-Scorpiid spectrum discussed in the scientific literature, and it has provided information about the chemical nature of the meteoroid and the progenitor body.

Revisiting the Single-Fluid Modeling of the Solar Wind-Comet Interaction: Closer Look at the Cometosheath

Abstract: Earlier developed single fluid gas-dynamic model of solar wind–comet ionosphere interaction is applied to reveal some specifics in the morphology of the shocked “contaminated” solar wind region (cometosheath). The model is based on the Euler equations with added mass-loading, mass-loss and frictional force terms. Numerous reactions are taken into account in these terms including photoionization, charge transfer, dissociative recombination and ion-neutral frictional force. The electromagnetic terms are omitted, thus reducing the MHD single-fluid system of equations to gas-dynamic one. The used shock-fitting numerical scheme allows the separation of distinct areas formed by the considered interaction and exploration of their properties in detail. Attention is focused on the region between the shock wave and the contact surface as well as on the positions of these boundaries. Accurate examination of the distribution of density, temperature and velocity reveals spatial variations that resemble the variations registered by a number of spacecraft in the vicinity of comets. No specific comparisons with data are made at this stage. Two very first events of the Rosetta spacecraft’s crossing of the magnetic cavity boundary around Comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko are discussed using a “faux-transient” application of our steady-state model.

Prometheus Induced Vorticity in Saturn's F Ring

Abstract: Saturn’s rings are known to show remarkable real time variability in their structure. Many of which can be associated to interactions with nearby moons and moonlets. Possibly the most interesting and dynamic place in the rings, probably in the whole Solar System, is the F ring. A highly disrupted ring with large asymmetries both radially and azimuthally. Numerically non-zero components to the curl of the velocity vector field (vorticity) in the perturbed area of the F ring post encounter are witnessed, significantly above the background vorticity. Within the perturbed area rich distributions of local rotations is seen located in and around the channel edges. The gravitational scattering of ring particles during the encounter causes a significant elevated curl of the vector field above the background F ring vorticity for the first 1–3 orbital periods post encounter. After 3 orbital periods vorticity reverts quite quickly to near background levels. This new found dynamical vortex life of the ring will be of great interest to planet and planetesimals in proto-planetary disks where vortices and turbulence are suspected of having a significant role in their formation and migrations. Additionally, it is found that the immediate channel edges created by the close passage of Prometheus actually show high radial dispersions in the order ~20–50 cm/s, up to a maximum of 1 m/s. This is much greater than the value required by Toomre for a disk to be unstable to the growth of axisymmetric oscillations. However, an area a few hundred km away from the edge shows a more promising location for the growth of coherent objects.

On the Nature of the Impactor That Formed the Shackleton Crater on the Moon

Abstract: The present paper attempts to assess the characteristics of the impactor that formed the Shackleton crater, located at the south pole of the Moon. The crater’s morphometric parameters were analyzed based on the data of the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter aboard the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter. Conclusions were drawn regarding the possible range of the impact angle and the parameters of the transient crater, such as depth and volume. The thickness of ejecta deposits on the transient crater rim and the volume of these deposits at a certain distance from the crater rim were assessed. These assessments enabled determining the type and characteristics of impactors (velocity, density, size, and impact angle) that could have formed the Shackleton crater. It was shown that the Shackleton crater could have been formed by an impact of a low-velocity (3 km/s) comets with diameter 4–4.5 km, chondrite or achondrite with a diameter of 2 km at a 45°–50° angle, whose velocity did not exceed 6 km/s, as well as stony–iron or iron–nickel impactors with a 1–2 km diameter for stony–iron asteroids and 1–1.5 km for iron–nickel asteroids. The impact velocity of stony–iron impactors, according to the authors’ calculations, can reach 12 km/s. The impact velocities of iron–nickel asteroids range from 6 to 9 km/s. The impactor’s substance mass that could have remained in the crater after it was formed was assessed.

The Proportion of Stars with Planets

Abstract: Estimates of the proportion of Sun-like stars with accompanying planets vary widely; the best present estimate is that it is about 0.34. The capture theory of planet formation involves an interaction between a condensed star and either a diffuse protostar or a high-density region in a dense embedded cluster. The protostar, or dense region, is tidally stretched into a filament that is gravitationally unstable and breaks up into a string of protoplanetary blobs, which subsequently collapse to form planets, some of which are captured by the star. A computational model, in which the passage of collapsing protostars, with initial radii 1000, 1500 and 2000 au, through a dense embedded cluster are followed, is used to estimate the proportion of protostars that would be disrupted to give planets, in environments with star number-densities in the range 5000–25,000 pc−3. It is concluded from the results that the capture theory might explain the presently-estimated proportion of stars with exoplanet companions, although other possible ways of producing exoplanets are not excluded.

Lightcurve Analysis, Shapes and Spins of Asteroids Ermolova and Silver from Long-Term Observations

Abstract: We present lightcurves, shapes, and 3D convex spin-axis models for two main-belt asteroids: (3657) Ermolova and (5325) Silver. The photometric data were obtained at the Skalnate Pleso Observatory (High Tatras, Slovakia) only. The models were obtained with the lightcurve inversion process using combined dense photometric data from the apparitions in 2006, 2010, and 2013 for Ermolova and in 2006, 2010, and 2013 for Silver. The analysis of the resulting data found sidereal periods and possible ecliptic pole solutions (J2000.0). Currently, only 1592 models are known for 907 asteroids. Knowledge of individual asteroid shapes and spin axes is vital for the understanding the Solar System.

A Search for the Far-Infrared Ghost of C/2010 X1 (Elenin) with Herschel

Abstract: Observations of Comet C/2010 X1 (Elenin) in August 2011 showed a pattern of evolution of coma morphology into an expanding, amorphous cloud of rapidly decreasing surface brightness shortly before perihelion passage, similar to C/1999 S4 (LINEAR) in 2000. However, the comet’s difficult viewing geometry at the time of disruption made it impossible to study the event using high-resolution imaging techniques and, in particular, to measure the ratio of dust to cometessimals which gives information on the internal structure of the nucleus before disruption. We report Herschel/PACS observations of the defunct Comet C/2010 X1 (Elenin), aimed at detecting its infrared ghost: the debris cloud and any remaining inert, or low-activity cometessimals that may have been released in the break-up of the nucleus, taking advantage of the comet’s close pass to Earth in mid-October 2011. These observations would have allowed us to detect, potentially, both individual surviving inert fragments of the nucleus of ≈260 m diameter (and significantly smaller, active cometessimals) and the expanding dust cloud, being particularly sensitive to coarse dust and boulders in the millimetre to metre size range. No discrete bodies were detected by Herschel to this limiting size.