Showing papers in "Economic Botany in 1973"

An Archaeological and Historical Account of Cannabis in China

Abstract: Although Cannabis is generally believed to be of Asiatic origin, within this vast geographical area, there is no general agreement as to where the domestication really came about. Alphonse de Candolle (1884), the first authority on the origin of cultivated plants, ascribed a very extensive range to the plant. He asserted that "the species has been found wild, beyond a doubt, to the south of the Caspian Sea, near the Irtysch, in the desert of Kirghiz, beyond Lake Baikal in Dahuria (government of Irlkutsch). Authors mention it throughout southern and central Russia and to the south of the Caucasus, but its wild nature is here less certain, seeing that these are populous countries, and that the seeds of the hemp are easily diffused from gardens. The antiquity of the cultivation of hemp in China leads me to believe that its area extends further to the east, although this has not yet been proved by botanists. " Later workers, mostly working on field collections, either have accepted this very general and extensive area, or favor specific regions, such as the Himalayas, central Asia, India, Pakistan or China (Vavilov, 1926; Zhukovskii, 1962). It is a difficult problem to differentiate truly wild plants from spontaneous, escaped or semicultivated plants. There still remains much to be done to clarify the systematics of Cannabis. Moreover, in the case of Cannabis, which has been associated with man for so long, botanical studies alone are inadequate to ascertain the origin of cultivation. As one author states (Schultes, 1972), "It would seem that historical and ethnobotanical evidence

Chat: Coffee’s rival from Harar, Ethiopia. I. Botany, cultivation and use

Abstract: The early history, botany, cultivation, economics and sociological aspects of the use ofCatha edulis (Vahl) Forsk. ex Endl., commonly known as chat, have been presented in some detail with special emphasis being given to agricultural practice around Harar, Ethiopia, an area where the plant is probably native. Chat attains an average height of 2.5 to 3 meters but may occasionally reach 15–20 meters. Its tender leaves and twigs are used exclusively as a masticatory in this area although its name Abyssinian, Somali or Arabian tea indicates its use as a beverage in earlier days and some localities. Indeed, it is held that prior to the introduction of coffee and its use, people in Yemen made a decoction of chat and the use of chat even disappeared for a while from Aden and coffee drinking was substituted. The twigs of chat, with leaves attached, in bundles of fifty or so and in pieces from about 30 to 40 cm in length, form a very considerable article of commerce. The effects produced by chewing the fresh leaves are described as similar to those produced by an amphetamine or amphetamine-like stimulant, only more pleasant and agreeable when not used in excess. Chat is also an anorexiant. Chewers in rural areas use the leaves to give them energy to work and suppress the appetite and keep them from feeling drowsy; in urban areas users chew chat as a “past-time” stimulant, appetite suppressant or as a study aid. Although chat was originally used exclusively by Moslems, its use now pervades all religions and socio-economic groups although Moslem males are still the prime consumers.

The ethnobotany of the Southern Kwakiutl Indians of British Columbia

Abstract: 142 plant species are known to be recognized by the Southern Kwakiutl Indians of British Columbia. Means of collection, preparation, and utilization of these plants are outlined. The role of plants in Kwakiutl culture and economy for food, technology, medicine, religion, recreation, linguistics, and migration and settlement patterns is discussed. Phonetic transcriptions are given of most Kwakiutl names of plants. The ethnobotanies of the Southern Kwakiutl and the Vancouver Island Coast Salish are briefly compared. 50% of the plants were used similarly by both groups. Most differences seem related to vegetation characteristics, degree of trade and communication, cultural features, and religious secrecy. The extent and even the type of use of species occurring in both areas often appeared to be related more to species abundance than to any inherent plant characteristics.

Economic plants of ancient North China as mentioned inShih Ching (Book of Poetry)

Abstract: Bretschneider (2) once commented that most of the plants mentioned in the Chinese classics could safely be regarded as native to China. Unfortunately, he furmlished a list of classics including such works as Sheng-Lung Herbal and Er Yah; the former is attributed to Sheng-Lung, a Chinese mythological king who was regarded as the founder of Chinese Agriculture; the latter is a sort of dictionary to the classics, said to have been compiled by a student of Confucius, Tzu Shah. The credibility of both books is highly questionable. The present article is limited to an account of plants of economic importance, the names of which are recorded in Shih Ching, a classic said to have been edited by Confucius, and frequently quoted in his Analects. It had been translated into the English language under the titles, 'Book of Poetry' (9), 'Book of Songs' (15), 'Book of Odes' (6), and so forth. The transliteration of the Chinese ideographs of plant names into English in this article (see Tables I & II) follows Karlgren's "Book of Odes" (6), so are all the quotations of the original poems. The Latin and common names of the plants are all based on Bailey's Manual of cultivated plants (1). This article is an English summation of a paper written by the author (7) in Chinese, with full documentation from various Chinese and other sources, and only selected references are given at the end of this article. Controversial points such as the interpretation of certain plant names, homonymy and synonymy in Chinese nomenclature, etc., are not elaborated in this English version. When the tyrannical Emperor of the Ch'in dynasty, Shih Huang Ti, issued his edict for the destruction of classic works (around 213 B.C.), Shih Ching shared the calamity with all the others. However, the poems collected in the book, 305 in all, were fortunately very nearly recovered decades later, and one of the plausible explanations is that their preservation depended on the memory of scholars more than on their inscription upon tablets and silks. The late Dr. Hu Shih, a celebrated Chinese historian, philosopher and statesman, observed (5) that the only book which preserved the most reliable ancient Chinese historical materials is Shih Ching. He cited the following well-known stanza from a poem (193. Shi Yue chi kiao or 'At the conjunction in the tenth month') in the book as an example.

Utilization of Papaver

Abstract: The well-known opium poppy (Papaver somniferum L.) furnishes opiates, ornamentals, poppy seed, poppy seed oil, poppycake, poppy flour, poppy straw and potherbs. Poppies also furnish analgesics, anodynes, ant food, antibiotics, anti-malarials, aphrodisiacs, baby rattles, bird food, copper indicators, cough remedies, demulcents, diaphoretics, diarrhea cures, febrifuges, fuel, fumitories, goiter treatments, hemostatics, hypnotics, imbedding media, indicators of the geographic origin of opium, molybdenum indicators, polyploidy inducers, salad vegetables, sedatives, sudorifics, tranquilizers and vesicants.

Seri Indian pharmacopoeia

Abstract: The traditional pharmacopoeia of the Seri Indians of Sonora, Mexico, involves approximately 95 species of plants in 80 genera, 15 animal species, and one kind of clay. In contrast only 75 species of plants were utilized for food. Medicinal teas are prepared from 63 plant species. Plants with aromatic foliage are especially esteemed. The predilection for watery preparations seems to be related to the commonplace water deficit in a very hot and arid environment.

Wide hybridization and cereal improvement

Abstract: The search for advantageous genes to improve the nutritional quality and increase the total yield potential of cereals and other crops has led to introgressive and interspecific hybridization of many cultivars with their wild relatives. Wider intergeneric hybrids are now of immense interest. Solutions to two “absolute” barriers have yielded grudgingly only to biochemical intervention.

Alkaloids and ethnobotany of Mexican peyote cacti and related species

Abstract: Some Mexican cacti of the genera Ariocarpus, Mammillaria, Obregonia, Pelecyphora, Solisia and Turbinicarpus have been studied with respect to their alkaloids and ethnobotany. Seven previously known cactus alkaloids were identified. N,N-Dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenethylamine was found to occur in Ariocarpus agavoides. In Pelecyphora aselliformis N,N-dimethyl-3-hydroxy-4, 5-dimethoxyphenethylamine was identified as the major alkaloid. The possible relationship between the vernacular names of these plants and their alkaloid content is discusse.

Early peyote research an interdisciplinary study

Abstract: 1. The first person to draw the attention of the scientific world to peyote was doubtless Dr. J. R. Briggs, and not Mrs. A. B. Nickels as is often stated. 2. The first report of alkaloids in peyote seems to be the laboratory report by F. A. Thompson at Parke-Davis, although Louis Lewin was the first to publish. 3. The variability ofLophophora williamsii and imperfect knowledge of the species laid the foundation for the controversy over botanical names. Only recently have field studies in Mexico indicated that there are two species,Lophophora williamsii andL. diffusa, differing in distribution and chemical characters.Anhalonium lewinii is now referred toL. williamsii. 4. Present and earlier studies of the Queretaro peyote,Lophophora diffusa, show that this species differs considerably in its alkaloid set-up fromL. williamsii. L. diffusa produces predominantly (>90%) phenolic tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids (mainly pellotine) and almost no mescaline. This lends support to the earlier postulation of an independent metabolic pathway to pellotine and anhalidine. 5. In our opinion, Heffter’s results withAnhalonium williamsii can be explained if we assume that his plant material was collected in Queretaro and was in factL. diffusa. The alkaloid analysis ofL. diffusa also provides an explanation of other controversial points in the history of peyote research.22 It seems especially appropriate here to recall that Kauder (p. 23) said: “The circumstances seem to me to call for further clarification, which will only be possible when we succeed in obtaining that cactus, which only contains pellotine.” 6. An 80-year old sample of “mescal buttons” has been shown to still contain identifiable alkaloids, most notably mescaline.

Archaeological evidence for precolumbian introduction of portulaca oleracea and mollugo verticillata into Eastern North America

Abstract: Three observations can be made. First,P. oleracea andM. verticillata were present in temperate eastern North America 2500-3000 years ago. Second, the intimate association of purslane and carpetweed with human activities leads us to speculate that the spread of these weeds was in part due to the American Indian. It is likely that purslane occurred in the same plots where the Salts Cave inhabitants cultivated sunflower (Helianthus annuus), sumpweed (Iva annua), chenopod (Chenopodium sp.), squash (Cucurbita pepo), and gourd (Lagenaria siceraria). Third, the identifications of these two species emphasizes the potential and the need for cooperation between scientists in various disciplines. Paleoethnobotany can contribute much to the understanding of plant histories and their relationships to man.

Quantitative variation in the chemical constituents of marihuana from stands of naturalizedCannabis sativa L. in East-Central Illinois

Abstract: Data from 101 naturalized stands ofCannabis in east-central Illinois indicate that production of Δ1(6)-THC, Δ1-THC, cannabinol and cannabidiol was determined, to a large extent, by environmental conditions of the site where plants are grown. It is assumed that these stands represented a relatively homogeneous genetic population. Δ1-THC was under the strongest environmental control. In general, content of these compounds was higher in marihuana from stands where plants were stressed. Two types of stress were suggested by the data: nutrient deficiency and inadequate moisture. Competition from other plants enhanced the content of the drug compounds, and this relationship strengthens the stress hypothesis. Work is underway to confirm this relationship.

“Omixochitl”—the tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa)

Abstract: The tuberose, Polianthes tuberosa Linnaeus (Agavaceae), which was cherished and cultivated in Mexico before the Conquest in 1522, is one of many flowers which have come to us from the ancient culture of the Nahuatlspeaking people. These intensely fragrant, cream-white flowers were known to the Aztecs as \"omixochitl\" or \"bone flower,\" from the words \"omitl,\" bone, and \"xochitl,\" flower, a name which in the Spanish tongue became \"Flor de hueso.\" In Mexico today one also hears the names \"nardo,\" \"azucena,\" \"amole,\" and \"amiga de noche\" applied to the white tuberoses sold in the Indian markets of Mexico City, neighboring towns, and especially in and near Guadalajara where these flowers are cultivated extensively. Although the native names tend to obscure rather than aid in the botanical identification of the plant known as \"omixochitl,\" they nevertheless represent symbols for diverse plants having in common only an intense fragrance, the memory of which has been retained through the tortuous path of botanical history. The first of these, \"nardo,\" has a long history which dates back to biblical times. It is referred to in the Bible as nard, an ingredient in a precious ointment which was kept in an alabaster box (Mark 14, verse 3). In the Book of John, Chapter 12, verse 3, one reads, \"Then took Mary a pound of ointment of spikenard, very costly, and anointed the feet of Jesus and wiped his feet with her hair: and the house was filled with the odor of the ointment.\" This species of nard or spikenard, Nardostachys ]a-

Desert plant chemurgy: A current review

Abstract: Extractives from, and utilization of, Cactaceae (cacti), Liliaceae (yucca), Amaryllidaceae (agaves),and other desert plants are reviewed. Work is reported in the fields of pharmaceuticals with special reference to an antidiabetic factor, cosmetics, cellulose and fibers, stock feeds, plant growth regulators, sterols, oils and oilseeds, surfactants, waxes, and several miscellaneous extractives. Mesquite, ironwood, and catclaw are considered as artists’ woods. Possibilities and problems of cultivation are considered.

Recognizing site adversity and drought-sensitive trees in stands of bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva)

Abstract: Bristlecone pine has been called the world's oldest known living thing. The tree grows in mountainous terrain near timberline in three southwestern states. Because of the species' longevity, sensitivity to climatic fluctuations, and unique growth form, it has attracted considerable attention from both scientists and recreationists. This paper discusses bristlecone pine in relation to its environment in east-central Nevada and sets forth criteria for recognizing trees that may be old or sensitive to climatic changes.

Chat: Coffee’s rival from Harar, Ethiopia. II. Chemical composition

Abstract: The early history, botany, cultivation, economics and sociological aspects of the use ofCatha edulis (Vahl) Forsk. ex Endl., commonly known as chat, have been presented in some detail. We have found general agreement in the literature as to the presence ofd-norpseudoephedrine in chat; the identity of the accompanying alkaloids is not at all certain. There is also disagreement as to whether or not the amounts ofd-norpseudoephedrine that have been determined occur in sufficient quantity to account for chat’s pharmacological action. Some investigators construe this as indicating the need for a holistic approach to the chemical pharmacology ofCatha edulis. Investigators claiming to have found additional alkaloids agree neither upon the number present nor upon their identities. It has been suggested that some of the anticipated additional alkaloids may well be congeners of others.

Application of the flotation technique in arid areas

Abstract: The 1970 excavations at Tell el-Hesi, Israel, provided an opportunity (necessity) to adapt the flotation process to an arid area. While it is too early to present the findings of the research, a discussion of the process seems pertinent and, hopefully, will encourage more widespread use of the technique. Tell el-Hesi is located midway between Askelon and Beer Sheva in the northern portion of the Negev desert. Although there remains some discussion about its ancient name, the site is presumed to have been in the border area of ancient Philistia and Israel on a major trade route. Previous excavations of the site were by Sir Flinders Petrie (1) and Frederick J. Bliss (2) in the 1890's. The flotation technique used was that of Dr. Stuart Streuver (3). Basically, Streuver's method simply employs relative specific gravity to separate organic material from soil, stones, etc. It has two primary advantages. First, it allows for the recovery of very small seeds, etc., that would be missed by even the most careful examination of dry soil as it is removed from the site and, secondly, it permits examination of relatively large quantities of soil. This allows for the recovery of information heretofore thrown away with the spoil. The process requires relatively simple equipment that may be manufactured by local craftsmen at nominal cost and, ideally, a source of running water. Sources of running water have been rivers, streams, irrigation works, etc. To a very limited extent tap water has been used to process small samples. The location of Tell el-Hesi precluded access to a traditional type of water supply. Also, because of vehicular logistics of the expedition, it was not feasible to transport the samples to a source of running water. Therefore, it was decided to attempt the construction

The importance of the Ethiopian sorghum germplasm in the world sorghum collection

Abstract: In summarizing, the Ethiopian Center of Crop Diversity contains enormous wealth of genetic variability in the sorghums. It needs some concerted effort to adequately collect and preserve this genetic variability before it is invaded and destroyed by improved uniform varieties and modern technology. The Alemaya station has a limited collection of the Ethiopian sorghums, about 1800 entries. These collections have been very useful and will continue to be so in the sorghum breeding programs of Alemaya and the world at large.

Mississippi-grown marihuana — Cannabis sativa cultivation and observed morphological variations

Abstract: For more than a generation Cannabis sativa Linnaeus has perhaps received more attention from the news media than any other species of plant. During the days of the Great Depression at least some people foresaw difficulties that lay ahead in connection with this species. One has only to read the fine address presented by the Honorable Harry J. Anslinger (1) before the New York Herald Tribune Forum in New York City on October 25, 1938. Much of what was said about marihuana then applies today. To quote a brief statement made in reference to the fight against drugs,"...each victory leads to a new field of battle. Our most recent enemy is Marihuana, the use of which as a narcotic was virtually unknown in the United States a decade ago... .It is a peril in some ways the worst we have met and it concerns us all." The increasing importance of the plant as a menace has made a closer study urgent. In Mississippi we are cultivating cannabis for use in research, and some of this work will be described in this report. First, however, let us examine briefly the history of this plant. Over a period of many centuries this annual, and usually dioecious, species has spread from its original home in Central Asia to most tropical and temperate areas of the world. Some writers believe that the spread to China began some 4,500

Some indigenous trees and shrubs used by local fishermen on the East African coast

Abstract: The local fishing industry of the East African coast has passed through a period of major change during the last two decades. For centuries, dug-out canoes, outriggers and small dhows had sufficed, but now planked boats using out-board motors are common. Their use is being actively encouraged by governments and their purchase subsidized by the newly formed fishing co-operatives. Not only the craft, but the nets and lines used have also changed radically. Instead of being made from traditional materials they are now of nylon and other artificial fibres. Floats are plastic balls instead of light wood, and even lobster and crab pots are being woven from plastic strips. Nylon and terylene sails are also appearing in place of those which had previously been sewn from a variety of materials, including hessian, unbleached calico (maradufu)\" or even a coarse cloth known as \"amerikani.\" Since these new materials decompose but slowly, the amount of litter on local beaches and near villages is rapidly increasing and in the vicinity of towns is an eyesore. These changes may be necessary and have improved the lot of local fisher folk, but they also have introduced many complications, not the least of which is that repairs and replacements now often cost money and not merely the time to collect and fashion local materials. Ferries over large rivers were often

Seed Composition of Hildegardia barteri

Abstract: The seeds of Hildegardia barteri (Mast.) Kosterm. (Sterculiaceae) are consumed in West Africa as raw or roasted nuts and have a flavor resembling peanuts. H. barteri is a tree that grows from the Ivory Coast to Nigeria and is called the Krobo Christmas tree (4). It has distinct ornamental value since its flowers are conspicuous on leafless branches in the dry season. Seed composition data are given here.

Yields of fungal protein from carob sugars

Abstract: The general scheme for microbial protein production (Gray, 1964, 1965, 1966) shows the conversion of green plant carbohydrates into fungal protein, which in turn can be converted to animal protein, which can then be used by man (GREEN PLANT CARBOHYDRATES ---+ FUNGUS PROTEIN --~ ANIMAL PROTEIN---+ MAN). We have already reported on the conversion of carob bean carbohydrates into fungal protein using the fungus Aspergillus niger, van Tieghem (Mitrakos et al., 1970). The carob bean sugars consist of a mixture of sucrose, glucose, fructose and maltose in a ratio of 5:1:1:0.7 (Mitrakos, 1968) and can be considered as a very good carbon source for fungal growth. In this paper we will present additional data on the growth of the fungus as well as the yield of dry mycelium and fungal protein under different nutritional conditions.

Ethnobotany of point of pines ruin Arizona W:10:50

Abstract: In the 13th Century a group of emigrants from northern Arizona settled among an indigenous people in east central Arizona. The immigrants occupied a block of rooms that later burned as a unit. The carbonized vegetal material in the rooms provides evidence concerning ethnobotany, the study of the inter-relationship between plants and man (Jones, 1941: 220). The significance of the plant material derives from integrating information on topography and plant ecology with traditional Southwestern Indian plant uses and archaeological data. The Point of Pines Ruin, Arizona W:10:50, is in east-central Arizona, 65 miles east of Globe and 40 miles north of Safford. The ruin was excavated between 1946 and 1960, when the University of Arizona maintained an archaeological field school at Point of Pines. Both the field school facilities and the ruin lie at the edge of Circle Prairie (elev. 6000 ft) where the gentler, northeastern slopes of the Nantack Ridge finger toward Circle Prairie as spurs (Fig. 1). The main ridge is about 51/2 miles southwest of Point of Pines, and extends from northwest to southeast. It has an average elevation of 6,500 feet, but reaches a maximum height of 7,600 feet (Woodbury, 1961). The southwest escarpment descends from approximately 6,500 feet to 5,000 feet at Ash Flat. Arizona W:10:50 began around A.D. 1200 as a cluster of pit houses and a contemporary adjacent masonry structure. Between 1280 and 1285 newrooms

Soh-phlong,Moghania vestita a leguminous root crop of India

Abstract: Of the many edible tuberous legumes that occur wild in the humid tropical-subtropical regions of India — viz.,Eriosema chinense, Moghania tuberosa, M. vestita, Pueraria tuberosa andVigna capensis — onlyMoghania vestita is cultivated as a minor food crop. It is eaten raw by the tribals of the Khasi and Jaintia hills (Assam, India) and is grown by them in the mountainous tract between 1000 and 1600 m, in a landscape predominantly occupied byPinus khasya grassland mixed vegetation. Since no significant account of this root crop is available and no mention of it is made even in some of the recent compilations on economic plants (11, 13), a survey of current information dealing with its early history, cultivation, distribution and usage is presented here.

Portulacaria afra Jacq. — A potential browse plant

Abstract: One of the most valuable South African fodder trees is Portulacaria afra Jacq. This large shrub or small tree is included in the list of fodder trees of South Africa by Palmer and Pitman (1961). Its most common vernacular name is spekboom. The name Gya-nese is associated with the plant in the Cape Province (Sim, 1907). In Zululand, it is known as inDibili-enkula, isAmbilane (Zulu) and iGwanishe (Xhosa). It is also known as "elephants' food" because elephants consume large quantities of the foliage (Palmer and Pitman, 1961). Records of the Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture indicate that spekboom has been introduced into the United States over a period of seven decades. Despite the reported successful establishment of spekboom in southern California soon after the turn of the century it has met with only limited success in the continental United States. The economic and aesthetic value of the plant is enhanced by its widespread distribution and multifarious utilization. Portulacaria afra should be evaluated further in the southwestern United States as a range plant in view of its widespread distribution in dry areas of South Africa and for its known value for browse.

Origin and Uses of Ipecac

Abstract: Ipecac is one of the oldest medicinals known to man. The plant from which it is obtained, Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) A. Rich., is native to Brazil and was used by South American Indians long before the beginning of recorded history. Dr. Adrien Helvetius of Paris is credited with the introduction of ipecac to Europe. He used it so successfully in his treatment of dysentery that Louis XIV, in 1682, offered him public honors and a large gift of money in exchange for his secret. The early Brazilians appear to have applied the term "ipecacuanha" to a number of roots having common emetic properties. The real botanical source of the drug was discovered when the Portuguese scientist Bernardino Gomez collected some authentic ipecac plants. These plants were described in 1803 by another Portuguese, Felix de Avellar Brotero, who named them Callicocca ipecacuanha.

The phylogenesis ofTriticum dicoccum a reconsideration

Abstract: It is commonly assumed that the wild, brittle-rachis Triticum dicoccoides is the ancestor of the cultivated, tough-rachis T. dicoccum. Both forms are fully interfertile; indeed, the wild and cultivated forms of emmer are so similar genetically and morphologically that Zohary (11) has suggested that they should be regarded as distinct at a subspecific rather than a specific level. Both the grain shape and the spikelet morphology of T. dicoccoides are thought to have changed during the transition to T. dicoccum. Thus the presence at Jarmo of a wheat with affinities to both T. dicoccoides and T. dicoccum is commonly regarded as 'indicating cereal cultivation in its initial stages' (3), when the domestic form of emmer was evolving from the ancestral wild form. Despite intensive investigations, the archaeological record of T. dicoccoides is slender, although that of T. dicoccum is well documented. T. dicoccoides is present at Jarmo in the VJIth millenium B.C. (3) and at 9aydnii Tepesi around 7000 B.C. (1), but absent from earlier or contemporaneous sites such as the PrePottery Neolithic levels of Jericho (7), Beidha (4), and Nahal Oren (8); Aceramic and Ceramic Hacilar (6), Tell Ramad (9), the Bus Mordeh and Ali Kosh phases of Ali Kosh (5), and Can Hasan III (2). On all these sites, T. dicoccum has been found. If the above-listed sites comprise the earliest indication of cereal cultivation, it is reasonable to expect that both the wild and domestic forms of emmer would have been found on these sites. On the other hand, the above sites may be taken to

Some Aspects of Developmental Physiology of the Nigerian Kola (Cola nitida) Fruit

Abstract: SUMMARY Systematic physiological studies were carried out on kola fruits from W1/6 plot at the Gambari Experimental Station, Ibadan, Nigeria. Pod growth in terms of weight, length and diameter was followed from fruit-set to harvest maturity. Changes in percentage moisture content, starch, total, reducing and non-reducing sugars of pod components were also followed at two-week intervals throughout the developmental period. Results indicated that physical growth of the kola fruit continues until harvest maturity. The moisture content at maturity was higher in the husk than in the nuts. Sugar content of the pod was maximal (54.7 mg glucose/gm tissue) at about the 10th week from fruit-set. Reducing sugars were present in higher concentrations than non-reducing sugars throughout the growth period and starch continued to accumulate mainly in the nuts with growth and development. Kola [Cola nitida (Vent.) Schott and Endl.] belongs to the genus Cola and is indigenous to Tropical Africa. Of the over 40 species recorded in West Africa only two, Cola nitida and C. acuminata are of economic importance in Nigeria. The kola tree is cultivated mainly for its nuts, which contain some alkaloids (caffein, theobromine and kolanin). Because these alkaloids dispel sleep, thirst and hunger, the nuts are used widely as masticatory. A few hundred tons of the dried nuts are exported annually from West Africa to North America and Europe where they

Shallot farming in Ghana

Abstract: Shallots are properly ascribed to Allium ascalonicum L., which is rare in cultivation. Commercial shallots are cultivated forms of Allium cepa L. (2). Unlike onions, which produce a single bulb or two bulbs from a single plant, shallots produce a cluster of bulbs (3 to 12) from a single planted bulb. The plants are smaller than onions, and the bulbs which are the usual means of propagation take about sixty days from sprouting to maturity. Shallots are quite cold-resistant and thus do not flower in many parts of the warm tropics. The principal shallot growing area in Ghana is around Anloga, between Keta and the ferry point at Anyanui on the lower banks of the Volta River covering an area of about 1000 acres. The vegetation at Anloga is similar to that found elsewhere in the tropics where mangrove (Avicennia africana and Rhizophora racemosa) swamps and lagoons exist along seashores. The highland is not more than 15 ft above sea level and is very sandy. This itself is divided into "Upland" and "Lowland." Coconuts are largely grown in the upland areas while maize, shallots and other vagetables like tomatoes and okra are grown in the lowlands. Some cassava is also grown in the uplands. Since Anloga is part of the Keta peninsula, with the lagoon on one side and the Atlantic Ocean on the other, the coconuts are on the ocean side and the marshes on the lagoon side. At present quite a large acreage of the coconuts are affected by Cape St. Paul Wilt and some of these coconut lands are being planted with cassava. The most common weed in the upland is Lalang grass (Imperata cylindrica) and that

Distribution of senna seymeria (Seymeria cassioides) a root parasite on southern pines

Abstract: In 1969 senna seymeria [Seymeria cassioides (J. F. Gmel.) Blake], an annual of the figwort family (Scrophulariaceae), was found to be parasitic on roots of slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.). Subsequent tests showed that the plant is an obligate parasite on at least three species of southern pines and is apparently selective for pines only. A southwide survey indicated that senna seymeria is most common on moist, sandy sites of the Lower Gulf and Atlantic Coastal Plains.