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Showing papers in "Economic Botany in 1982"


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The present paper reviews the literature, bringing together information from all the major cassava-producing areas in order to focus attention on the diversity of the processing techniques and the wide variety of cassava -based foods and beverages that are produced.
Abstract: Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is an important source of food in the tropics. Phillips (1974) estimated that by 1980 it would provide 37% of the calories consumed in Africa, 11% in Latin America and 6% in the Far East forming the staple diet of 500 million people. Total world production in 1978 was estimated to be over 119 mill tonnes, mainly distributed among Africa, South America and Southeast Asia (FAO, 1979). Production figures for the major cassava producing countries of the world for the years 1976-1978 are shown in Table 1. Most of the world production of cassava is used for human consumption in tropical countries, the other main uses being for animal feed and the starch industry. The latter 2 markets, however, accounted for only 6.5% of the world production in 1974 (Anonymous, 1977). To an even greater extent than other tuberous crops, cassava is primarily a carbohydrate source containing little protein and as such is often considered as an inferior food. However, in much of the world where severe malnutrition and even starvation exists, the populations suffer not only from protein deficiency but also carbohydrate deficiency. The production of cassava products using traditional methods of preparation goes far to alleviate the problem: indeed it is significant that in areas where cassava is extensively grown, severe famines seldom occur. There are many descriptions of the traditional methods used to prepare foods from the cassava root but most are oriented to particular areas of the world. There is no study of the subject on a worldwide basis. The present paper reviews the literature, bringing together information from all the major cassava-producing areas in order to focus attention on the diversity of the processing techniques and the wide variety of cassava-based foods and beverages that are produced. Cassava leaves are also used as a food particularly in Africa and they are a good supplementary source of proteins and vitamins (Terra, 1964). As such their role in the diet is very different from that of the cassava root and they will not be discussed here. However, there is a need for further studies on the value of cassava leaves in the diet.

165 citations



Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Analysis of available information demonstrates the value of continued phytochemical investigations of folklore remedies.
Abstract: The data reported in the literature concerning the uses and composition of yarrow,Achillea millefolium aggr., Compositae, are compiled and discussed. Historically, this plant has been extensively used as a herbal remedy for numerous afflictions by many cultures on several continents. It has also been the subject of a considerable number of scientific investigations. It has, however, not been previously reviewed. Analysis of available information demonstrates the value of continued phytochemical investigations of folklore remedies.

145 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A collection of 21 preserved tubers of the potato from 4 archaeological sites situated in the Casma Valley of Peru is illustrated and described in this article, where the potato remains were identified through a stud) of their starch grains.
Abstract: A collection of 21 preserved tubers of the potato from 4 archaeological sites situated in the Casma Valley of Peru is illustrated and described. The collections from these sites date from the Preceramic Period (2000 B.C.) to the Initial Ceramic Period (1200 B.C.). Identification of the tuber remains was undertaken through a stud) of their starch grains. Comparative material used for this purpose included other archaeological collections of tuber remains from the sites of Chilca and Pachacamac, as well as the fresh and dried tubers of modern-day wild and cultivated potato species.

94 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Plants constitute a vast cornucopia of chemical substances used for defense from attack by insects.
Abstract: Plants constitute a vast cornucopia of chemical substances used for defense from attack by insects. These may be classified as insect attractants, repellents, toxicants, inhibitors of growth and development, sterilants, and feeding deterrents. An overview of the subject and its interrelationships with man is presented.

79 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
A. R. Gray1
TL;DR: Calabrese has been the most intensively developed, being currently represented by many cultivars, including F1 hybrids, and the need to conserve existing genetic variability of existing cultivars within Cape and sprouting broccoli is stressed.
Abstract: The origin and application of the name broccoli are discussed and a distinction between cauliflower and broccoli is proposed, based on their relative ontogeny at marketable maturity. The history and evolution of broccoli is considered in relation to cauliflower and its diversification into annual and biennial types is discussed. White-sprouting broccoli is considered to be closely related to English winter-hardy cauliflower. Calabrese, though representing only a small part of the italica gene pool, has been the most intensively developed, being currently represented by many cultivars, including F1 hybrids. The potential for breeding new Cape and sprouting broccolis is discussed, and the need to conserve existing genetic variability of existing cultivars within Cape and sprouting broccoli is stressed.

73 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The hypothesis suggests a major portion of the genus Capsicum arose in a nuclear area in south central Bolivia with subsequent migration into the Andes and lowland Amazonia accompanied by radiation and speciation.
Abstract: An hypothesis is advanced based upon geographical information and data from horizontal starch gel electrophoresis regarding the place and mode of evolution of the chili peppers (Capsicum). The hypothesis suggests a major portion of the genusCapsicum arose in a nuclear area in south central Bolivia with subsequent migration into the Andes and lowland Amazonia accompanied by radiation and speciation.

72 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The possible gossypol and cyclopropenoid contents of okraseed must be considered when food or feed use for monogastrates is contemplated.
Abstract: Immature okra pods are commonly consumed as a vegetable. In addition, okra has attributes that could permit it to be used for other purposes. Leaves, buds, and flowers are edible; dried seeds could provide oil, protein, vegetable curd and a coffee additive or substitute. Foliage could be used for biomass, and the dried stems could serve as a source of paper pulp or fuel. The possible gossypol and cyclopropenoid contents of okraseed must be considered when food or feed use for monogastrates is contemplated. Although little development work has been done with okra, available germ plasm appears to be sufficiently diverse to permit genetic improvement.

69 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the first report of an ethnobotanical study in the state of Nagaland is presented, where Fifty-one medicinal plants used by the Aos tribe in Nagalands are reported.
Abstract: This paper forms the first report of an ethnobotanical study in the state of Nagaland. Fifty-one medicinal plants used by the Aos tribe in Nagaland are reported. This list is not exhaustive as it is anticipated that many more such plants will be added after thorough botanical exploration and more detailed ethnobotanical studies.

62 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: One hundred ninety-five species of plants native to the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico were surveyed for potential feedstocks for biocrude production in arid lands in this paper.
Abstract: One hundred ninety-five species of plants native to the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico were surveyed for potential feedstocks for biocrude production in arid lands. Biocrude is the hydrocarbon and hydrocarbonlike chemical fraction of plants which may be extracted by organic solvents and upgraded to liquid fuels and chemical feedstocks. Plants were evaluated using a set of models which provide estimates of oil and energy production costs. Plants producing either latex or resinous exudates had the highest percentage of high energy extracts. Total extracts were highest in smaller, potentially less productive plants. The optimum combination of percentage biocrude and potential yield occurred in plants of intermediate size having higher than average extractables. High biomass yields do not appear necessary for the economic production of biocrude in irrigated, arid regions. Several desert plants might produce biocrude for between $10–15 per million BTU without by-product credits.

50 citations


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Brosimum alicastrum is a large, evergreen tropical tree which is widely distributed in Mexico and its protein-rich seeds and leaves may be used for food and forage, and several medicines and beverages can be made from parts of the tree.
Abstract: Brosimum alicastrum is a large, evergreen tropical tree which is widely distributed in Mexico. Its protein-rich seeds and leaves may be used for food and forage, and several medicines and beverages can be made from parts of the tree. Although an important alternative food in pre-Columbian times, the current use of the tree is very limited. Recent studies indicate that its increased use would be extremely beneficial, and that the most immediate means for accomplishing this are the collection and processing of seeds from natural forests and the establishment of plantations for forage.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The early Amerind, prescientific farmer, without the knowledge of sexual reproduction in plants, improved maize from a wild ancestor, and modem plant breeders are continuing to improve it in a similar continuum.
Abstract: The early Amerind, prescientific farmer, without the knowledge of sexual reproduction in plants, improved maize from a wild ancestor, and modem plant breeders are continuing to improve it in a similar continuum. I consider domestication to be a process, not an act. The domestication process is defined here as the continuing, human-controlled, evolutionary process of the modification of the genotype that has been operative since cultivation began (Johannessen, 1970, p. 689). The domestication process involves the farmer's perception of the food potential of the maize plant and its variations, the recognition that the plant can be reproduced, the selection of seed desired for planting, the reproduction of the selected seed in such a way as to maintain or improve its quality, and the dispersal of the maintained and improved varieties to other agricultural people. Natural hybridization probably occurred in the past. In this paper I will address only the prescientific methodologies of the Indians, not scientific agricultural systems. In order to investigate the domestication process, I selected the location for field study on the basis of information given in the Races of Maize (Wellhausen et al., 1952; Wellhausen et al., 1957) about distribution of the largest ears of maize in Guatemala. I asked Guatemalan agronomists and geographers in which districts with large maize were the Indians the most traditional in their agricultural practices. Because of the reverence with which the local folk still hold maize, the agronomists and geographers suggested that I concentrate in the Coban-Huehuetenango axis of the country; this I did. Research in the field was carried out in July 1966, from June-September 1968, July 1970, and each summer from 19741977, mainly in Alta Verapaz. The literature search on which this present research is based is included in an earlier ethnographic publication (Johannessen et al., 1970).

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Two edible “root” species, springbank clover and Pacific silverweed, and their use as food by Northwest Coast Indian peoples documented are described and their future potential as a food source along the Northwest Coast is discussed.
Abstract: Two edible “root” species, springbank clover (Trifolium wormskioldii), and Pacific silverweed (Potentilla anserina ssp. pacifica), are described and their use as food by Northwest Coast Indian peoples documented. Descriptions of traditional harvesting, cooking and serving, and storage techniques for these foods are provided, and their future potential as a food source along the Northwest Coast is discussed.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: It can be concluded that a minimum diet of 100 g of the sea fennel leaves per day provides a sufficient amount of vitamin C to meet the recommended daily allowance of 75 mg VC per person.
Abstract: Focussing our attention on the mean value of 76.6% VC, it can be concluded that a minimum diet of 100 g of the sea fennel leaves per day provides a sufficient amount of vitamin C to meet the recommended daily allowance of 75 mg VC per person. Since for man, dehydroascorbic acid is as effective a vitamin as is ascorbic acid,Crithmum maritimum should be recognized as a suitable means of protection against scurvy, as it has long been recognized by sailors and fishermen. According to Hegi (1906),Crithmum in former times was also used for the production of soda. Hegi further states that it may well serve in temperate climates for ornamental decoration in rock gardens close to the sea.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the results of the interaction of Jaltomata and humans are discussed in a general evolutionary context, and the results are used as a starting point for further elucidation of progressive domestication.
Abstract: Members of Jaltomata are herbaceous perennials distributed from southwestern United States into Bolivia, and annuals in the Caribbean and Galapagos Islands. The described species do not fully represent the diversity of this genus. For example, the widespread species, J. procumbens, exhibits morphological variation in several regions of Mexico and Central America. These regions of variation may be in part the result of the plants association with humans. There is a very close match in the geographical distributions of the Tarahumara, Zapotec, Tzeltal, and Chuj cultures and the variant populations of Jaltomata in Chihuahua, Oaxaca, Chiapas (Mexico), and Huehuetenango (Guatemala), respectively. The results of the interaction of Jaltomata and humans are discussed in a general evolutionary context. Observations of Jaltomata among the Tarahumarain Chihuahua are presented as a starting point for further elucidation of progressive domestication. This encouraged weed is recognized as an intermediate between the wild and domesticate. Many vernacular names have been applied to Jaltomata some of these names are also applied to noncongeners (e.g., members of the Solanum nigrum complex).

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Orobanche crenata grew vigorously on broadbean even when the original host was safflower or coleus and Ramose from tobacco and from tomato did equally well on either host.
Abstract: Strains ofOrobanche crenata, O. aegyptiaca, O. minor, O. ramose andO. cernua from different geographical areas and from different host species were potted with tobacco, tomato and other hosts.Orobanche cernua, O. aegyptiaca andO. Ramose from tobacco and from tomato did equally well on either host.Orobanche crenata grew vigorously on broadbean even when the original host was safflower or coleus.Orobanche minor has apparently developed several distinct strains.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that the availability of farm land, economics of crop production, and competition with petroleum are such that agriculture should be considered as a viable alternative for at least part of our chemical feedstock requirements.
Abstract: Before the rapid development of the petrochemical industry, many feedstocks for manufacturing paints, plastics, fibers, lubricants, adhesives, and a host of other products were derived from agriculture. Good examples are linseed, castor, tung, tall, and soybean oils; natural rubber, gums, starch and cellulose, and many sources of fiber from the plant kingdom, as well as hides, bones, and fats and oils from the animal kingdom. In addition to these traditional agricultural materials, several new plant sources have been developed through new crops research. Also, new ways have been developed for converting existing agricultural products to better chemical intermediates. Availability of farm land, economics of crop production, and competition with petroleum are such that agriculture should be considered seriously as a viable alternative for at least part of our chemical feedstock requirements.

Journal ArticleDOI
B. C. Wolverton1
TL;DR: Data demonstrated that by combining anaerobic filters, also referred to as attached film filters, and vascular aquatic plants a synergistic effect is produced which increases the treatment efficiency of each individual system.
Abstract: A small hybrid wastewater treatment system consisting of a settling tank in series with an anaerobic filter-reed (Phragmites communis) treatment cell was evaluated and compared with a similar plant-free system. Data demonstrated that by combining anaerobic filters, also referred to as attached film filters, and vascular aquatic plants a synergistic effect is produced which increases the treatment efficiency of each individual system. The plant-free system reduced the BOD5 from 114 to 31 mg/l in 6 h as compared to a reduction of 110 to 9 mg/l in the anaerobic filter-reed system in the same length of time. The BOD5 and TSS after 24 h in each component of plant-free system were reduced from 114 mg/l to 14 mg/l and 51 to 15 mg/l, respectively. Under the same conditions, the hybrid system reduced the BOD5 from 110 to 3 mg/l and the TSS from 68 to 6 mg/l. The hybrid system also reduced the total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) from 16.1 to 2.9 mg/l, total phosphorus (TP)from 4.4 to 2.0 mg/l, and the ammonia (NH3-N)from 12.4 to 0.6 mg/l after 24 h of exposure while the plant-free system demonstrated insignificant reduction of these components.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: A quarantine of the host and fungus is proposed to prevent possible disastrous widespread infection of American wild rices by the fungus.
Abstract: Zizania latifolia (Manchurian wild rice), native to eastern Asia, is often infected by the smut fungus, Ustilago esculenta, causing culm enlargement and failure to produce flowers. The enlarged infected culms have been used as a vegetable (gau sun) in China since the 10th century. The occasionally-used nameZ. Caduciflora is shown to be only a synonym. To facilitate identification of the host, a taxonomic key shows thatZ. Latifolia differs from and is fully distinct from the American species ofZizania. The nature and structure of the fungus and the history and cultivation of the vegetable are described. As a precaution we propose quarantine of the host and fungus to prevent possible disastrous widespread infection of American wild rices by the fungus.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Three species ofAmaranthus are cultivated for their edible seeds: A. caudatus, the semidomesticate, and A. hybridus, native to Mexico and Guatemala, while the third originated in the Andes.
Abstract: Three species ofAmaranthusare cultivated for their edible seeds:A. hypochondriacus L.,A. cruentusL., andA. caudatusL. The first two are native to Mexico and Guatemala, while the third originated in the Andes. Some authors recognize a fourth species,A. MantegazzianusPass. (A. edulisSpeg.), also from South America. Recent interest in amaranths as crops for improving Third World nutrition makes studies of relationships among amaranth species and intraspecific variation important. The weedy speciesA. hybridus L. (A. quitensisHBK) has been suggested as the progenitor ofA. caudatus, and it appears to be the closest wild relative of the crop. However, discovery of semidomesticated, darkseeded amaranths in Ecuador that are referable toA. caudatusraises some questions. The dark-seeded plants might represent a transitional form between the crop and its weedy progenitor, the product of independent selection of special forms ofA. hybridus, the result of introgressive hybridization between the crop and related weed, established escapes from cultivation, or remnants of the ancestor of the crop which may have been simply wildA. caudatusand notA. hybridus. Detailed morphological comparisons have been made among cultivated forms ofA. caudatus, the semidomesticate, andA. hybridus. Genetic data have been considered, and 2 mixed populations includingA. hybridusand the semidomesticate have been examined. Although all the other hypotheses cannot be eliminated, the dark-seededA. caudatusplants seem most likely to represent escapes from cultivation. Separate recognition ofA. Mantegazzianusdoes not seem warranted.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Principal components analysis of 46 chromosome knob positions and B chromosomes for 61 accessions of annual teosinte and 207 accession of maize produced results which did not entirely agree with previous groupings.
Abstract: Principal components analysis of 46 chromosome knob positions and B chromosomes for 61 accessions of annual teosinte (in 12 groups) and 207 accessions of maize (in 87 groups) produced results which did not entirely agree with previous groupings. Teosintes of northwest and southeast Guatemala (races Huehuetenango and Guatemala) were widely separated from maize and from all other teosintes; however, teosintes of east Mexico-Distrito Federal (race Chalco) were also widely separated from maize and other teosintes. Teosintes of south Chihuahua (race Nobogame) grouped separately from other teosintes, suggesting that race Nobogame is not simply a northern extreme of race Central Plateau. Teosintes of east Michoacan and west Mexico (recently grouped into the Balsas race) grouped together but separately from other teosintes. The latter teosintes may merit special designation in a racial taxonomic system. Only the Central Plateau teosintes consistently overlapped with maize OTU's for the first few principal components. Even in that case there was no consistent association between the Central Plateau teosintes and any specific race of maize.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: The legume plant family and its present role in agriculture are described andnexploited legumes, if developed through research, may be of major importance in agriculture’s response to this challenge.
Abstract: The legume plant family and its present role in agriculture are described. Critical agricultural problems in the immediate future may center about the maintenance of soil nitrogen supplies, a consequence of spiraling costs of fertilizers, and the need to improve the quantity and quality of protein in high-population countries. Unexploited legumes, if developed through research, may be of major importance in agriculture’s response to this challenge.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Abrus precatorius and Ricinus communis have been found to have been carried from the Old World to the New World by European explorers and early settlers as mentioned in this paper, however, some evidence has been accumulating to indicate that there may have been contacts other than by European colonists.
Abstract: Cultivated plants are cited by anthropologists as important indicators of man’s past. Medicinal species, to a large extent, have been overlooked even though in some cases these plants represent some of the social and cultural traditions of the people who use them. A number of cultivated plants have been traced from the Old World to the New World and are generally believed to have been carried there by European explorers and early settlers. However, some evidence has been accumulating to indicate that there may have been contacts other than by European colonists. One trade route that has been neglected is that of the slave trade from west Africa to the Caribbean. Three plant species,Citrus aurantifolia, Ricinus communis andAbrus precatorius, may exemplify the role and use of this route. They also indicate the migration and assimilation of west African Fulani, Hausa, and Mandingo cultures and Obeah religion into Caribbean society.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Papaver bracteatum, native to Iran and southern Russia, has been grown successfully in many countries and research in the northwest United States has confirmed the potential for its commercial production as a source of the alkaloid thebaine.
Abstract: Papaver bracteatum, native to Iran and southern Russia, has been grown successfully in many countries. Research in the northwest United States has confirmed the potential for its commercial production as a source of the alkaloid thebaine. Potential for the chemical conversion of thebaine into codeine, one of man’s most widely used alkaloidal medicinal agents, is reviewed. Economic and social advantages of growing this species over opium poppy (Papaver somniferum) are discussed. The value of the seed oil for cooking and industrial use is considered.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Water soluble gums of plant origin represent an enormous quantity of industrial material supplied by plant growing areas in most parts of the world (Whistler, 1973) and are separated by a variety of methods as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Water soluble gums of plant origin represent an enormous quantity of industrial material supplied by plant growing areas in most parts of the world (Whistler, 1973). Gums come from a variety of plants and are separated by a variety of methods. Their use began before recorded history, starting in all probability as thickeners for foods in gruels, long before their next major use as sizing for paper and textiles. Today, usage of natural water-soluble gums is growing at the rate of 10%/yr. But the hard hand of economics is changing the types of gums that are used. Slowly, but irresistibly, labor cost escalation even in remote areas and the quality control needed for relatively pure and constant quality raw material cause some plant sources to be eliminated and others, perhaps more amenable to cultivation, to appear as new sources. Water-soluble gums are seldom used alone in applications but, almost always, are mixed with other materials. Their principal role is to control physical properties. They are excellent suspending agents, dispersants, stabilizing agents, emulsifiers and gel-forming agents. On occasion, they are used as coagulants, binders, lubricants or film formers. They are all carbohydrate polymers composed of sugar units glycosidically condensed to form large molecules. As a consequence they are, for the most part, of high molecular weight, some linear and some branched, even extensively branched or bush shaped. As might be expected, a more or less extended linear polymer will sweep out a larger space as it gyrates than will a highly branched, bush-shaped polymer of the same molecular weight. Hence, linear soluble polysaccharides will have very high viscosities at low concentrations. Branched polysaccharides may have high viscosities also if their molecular weight, degree of polymerization, is high. In this short discussion, I wish to describe a few plant gums and present some information on several that are important or may become important in the United States.

Journal ArticleDOI
Mia Touw1
TL;DR: The importance of roses in medicine is discussed in this paper, where the authors argue that it is not because roses were less important in perfumery and horticulture that the latter two are eclipsed in this way, but only because they were so much more important in areas where they are now forgotten.
Abstract: Though we now tend to consider roses only as subjects for horticulture and perfumery, there were times when their significance extended far beyond that. Their religious symbolism among the Christian Europeans merits a section to itself; and the section on their practical significance in medicine occupies almost half of the present article. Yet it is not because roses were less important in perfumery and horticulture that the latter two are eclipsed in this way, but only because they were so much more important in areas where they are now forgotten.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: In this article, the authors summarized qualitative information on 5 potential Florida fuelwood species: slash pine, sand pine, melaleuca, eucalypt, and casuarina.
Abstract: This report summarizes qualitative information on 5 potential Florida fuelwood species: slash pine, sand pine, melaleuca, eucalypt, and casuarina. The important factors affecting the quality of fuelwood for industrial applications are briefly discussed. Fundamental properties relating to the fuel quality of these 5 potential fuelwoods are synthesized from several published and unpublished reports. Based on the qualitative data shown in this report, it appears that the fuel characteristics of these 5 species are comparable or superior to those of many other woods evaluated in the literature.

Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Medicinal uses ofOperculina turpethum by several groups of people are described, and linguistic evidence is used in connection with medicinal philosophies to reconstruct historic dispersal routes of the plants.
Abstract: Medicinal uses ofOperculina turpethum by several groups of people are described, and linguistic evidence is used in connection with medicinal philosophies to reconstruct historic dispersal routes of the plants.


Journal ArticleDOI
TL;DR: Electrophoretic and serological studies with proteins extracted from the pollen of 12 races of maize have proved valuable in distinguishing among these races, with the most notable being that Chalqueno appeared the most dissimilar of the races studied and that Dulce showed high similarity to Palomero Toluqueño.
Abstract: Electrophoretic and serological studies with proteins extracted from the pollen of 12 races of maize (Zea mays) have proved valuable in distinguishing among these races. Both sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and double immunodffusion (Ouchterlony method) were used to analyze the extracted pollen proteins. Jaccard's similarity coefficient was calculated from the data generated by 2-state scoring of the band patterns obtained in each system. Average linkage cluster analysis of the similarity matrices was used to construct phenograms illustrating the similarity among the extracts. The racial groupings indicated in these pheno grams, when compared with those of several morphological studies, show some general agreement. However, there are differences, the most notable being that Chalqueno appeared the most dissimilar of the races studied and that Dulce showed high similarity to Palomero Toluqueno, rather than being an exceptional race as it is usually considered. The possible bearing of the groupings of the races in these phenograms with respect to genetic lineage and selection of maize is discussed.