Showing papers in "Economic Botany in 2009"

Estimating the Local Value of Non-Timber Forest Products to Pendjari Biosphere Reserve Dwellers in Benin

Abstract: Estimating the Local Value of Non-Timber Forest Products to Pendjari Biosphere Reserve Dwellers in Benin This paper uses an indices method based on participant ranking of species to quantify use–values of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) and the socio-economic factors that influence these values for people living around the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve in Benin There were 76 species identified that had a high index value to people The 10 most valued species were Parkia biglobosa, Adansonia digitata, Vitellaria paradoxa, Tamarindus indica, Lannea microcarpa, Vitex doniana, Hibiscus asper, Melochia corchorifolia, Khaya senegalensis, and Diospyros mespiliformis Species values were influenced by the vegetative form of the species as well as by the gender of a participant and his/her affiliation to the ethnic group The study also illustrates that women had a preference for NTFP species with high commercial and nutritional values, while men preferred plants that provide construction material and medicine Moreover, the ethnic group that historically had more contact and interaction with the vegetation valued NTFPs more than any other group The difference in value attributed to species by people was also driven by the vertical transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge in the study area For long-term biodiversity conservation, it will be useful to involve the needs of all of the local communities in the design of a management plan and focus attention on the most important species

Traditional knowledge and useful plant richness in the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Valley, Mexico.

Abstract: Traditional Knowledge and Useful Plant Richness in the Tehuacan–Cuicatlan Valley, Mexico. This study systematizes ethnobotanical information about the interactions between people and plants, ethnofloristic richness, the relative importance of useful species richness in relation to general species richness, and plant management in the Tehuacan–Cuicatlan Valley of central Mexico. The study recorded a total of 1,605 useful vascular plant species (61.2% of the total species richness of the regional vascular flora), this being the region with the highest absolute richness of useful plant species in Mexico. The null hypothesis that plant families with a higher number of useful species would be those having a higher general species richness was analyzed through residuals method. The plant families richest in useful species were Poaceae, Asteraceae, Cactaceae, Cyperaceae, Mimosaceae, and Solanaceae, most of which also have the highest general floristic richness. However, analyses of use categories did not generally corroborate our hypothesis. About 1,335 of the useful species are wild, more than 500 species are submitted to some type of management (62 species are tolerated, 34 protected, 50 enhanced, and 358 cultivated), but only a few have been studied to document their process of domestication. This information can be useful for developing regional strategies of sustainable management of plant resources.

Fulani Knowledge of the Ecological Impacts of Khaya senegalensis (Meliaceae) Foliage Harvest in Benin and its Implications for Sustainable Harvest

Abstract: Fulani Knowledge of the Ecological Impacts ofKhaya senegalensis(Meliaceae) Foliage Harvest in Benin and Its Implications for Sustainable Harvest An improved understanding of how local people view their impacts on the resources they exploit and how they perceive that their resources are affected by other factors can provide insight into reasons some resources are overexploited and into strategies to conserve them In West Africa, various tree species are heavily harvested by indigenous herders for foliage to feed their cattle The reported declines in populations of several of these species have both biological and cultural implications, as cattle are an integral part of indigenous cultures and livelihoods In this study we investigated Fulani herders’ practices, knowledge, and perceptions of the ecological impacts of harvesting foliage of African mahogany, Khaya senegalensis, in Benin, and we tested some of the factors that may influence them Fulani herders have detailed ecological knowledge of their impacts on the resources they depend on, and this is finely tuned to local ecological conditions This knowledge is also widely spread across different sectors of Fulani communities and is highly congruent with scientific findings However, due to the open-access context of K senegalensis populations, detailed knowledge of sustainability does not translate into sustainable practices Fulani perceptions of threats to populations differ significantly between ecological regions and provide key insights for locally relevant resource management plans Traditional Fulani practices such as the sopoodu provide a basis for sustainable management of proposed Fulani-owned K senegalensis plantations This study illustrates how the assessment of local ecological knowledge, practices, and perceptions can play a key role in the design of culturally-appropriate conservation plans

Documented utility and biocultural value of Aloe L. (Asphodelaceae): a review.

Abstract: Documented Utility and Biocultural Value ofAloeL. (Asphodelaceae): A Review. The genus Aloe L. (Asphodelaceae) comprises 548 accepted species, of which at least one-third are documented as having some utilitarian value. The group is of conservation concern due to habitat loss and being extensively collected from the wild for horticulture and natural products. Cultural value is increasingly important in the effective conservation of biodiversity. The present study evaluated the biocultural value of the known uses of Aloe, excluding the domesticated and commercially cultivated A. vera. Over 1,400 use records representing 173 species were collated from the literature and through personal observation; this paper presents a synopsis of uses in each of 11 use categories. Medicinal uses of Aloe were described by 74% of the use records, followed by social and environmental uses (both 5%). Species yielding natural products, notably A. ferox and A. perryi, were most frequently cited in the literature. Consensus ratios indicate that the most valued uses of Aloe are in medicine and pest control against arthropods and other invertebrates.

Caatinga Ethnobotany: Anthropogenic Landscape Modification and Useful Species in Brazil's Semi-Arid Northeast

Abstract: Caatinga Ethnobotany: Anthropogenic Landscape Modification and Useful Species in Brazil’s Semi-Arid Northeast This study explores the contribution of anthropogenic landscapes in providing useful botanical resources to a Caatinga community in Pernambuco, Brazil. Ethnobotanical data were collected through semi-structured interviews using the checklist-interview method and by means of a “field herbarium” of the most abundant species in the anthropogenic zones. We recorded 119 species distributed in 36 families, of which 79 were found to be useful. Forage was the most prominent use category, containing 84% of the citations, followed by medicinals (36.70%), foods (10.12%), and wood (8.86%). Herbaceous species predominated (63.29%), followed by shrubs (3.79%), sub-shrubs (21.51%), trees (8.86%), and creepers (2.53%). Trees exhibited a greater number of uses than other life-forms (p < 0.05). Significant differences in richness were found, with the highest richness of species (χ2 = 60.28, p < 0.05), genera (χ2 = 49.03, p < 0.05), and families (χ2 = 20.16, p < 0.05) appearing in the rainy season. We concluded that fodder use was the most important category in our anthropogenic research areas, accounting for a higher number of species, genera, and families. The next most important categories were medicinal, timber, and food plants, respectively.

Eco–Enterprises and Terminalia ferdinandiana: "Best Laid Plans" and Australian Policy Lessons

Abstract: Eco–Enterprises and Terminalia ferdinandiana : “Best Laid Plans” and Australian Policy Lessons. This paper reviews practical policy lessons from trade in a dietary supplement (or nutraceutical) processed from Terminalia ferdinandiana (Combretaceae), which contains extremely high levels of natural ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Most production is from wild harvest by Aboriginal people, who get USD 14 per kilogram (kg) for picked, sorted fruit. However, the main Australian company involved is struggling to get the 12 tons/year it requires, and could market much more. Although Aboriginal people ideally should benefit economically from harvest of T. ferdinandiana, there are major challenges to this objective, including Australia’s high labor costs compared to Asia, Africa, and Latin America where T. ferdinandiana can be grown. In addition, although Australia is a signatory to and plays a leading role in the international Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), this has meant little in practice so far. “Cultural branding” and certification of organic, wild harvested T. ferdinandiana fruit collected by Aboriginal people working in partnership with commercial companies offers a possibility for Aboriginal people to continue to benefit from wild harvest or enrichment plantings. However, even the establishment of commercial horticultural production within Australia faces several challenges. For Australia to maintain and develop the international market, future development of this bush food must include: (a) implementation of existing international and national policies on protection of genetic resources; (b) formation of a producer association to increase production efficiencies; (c) functioning partnerships between Aboriginal producers and commercial partners that guarantee and expand reliable supply and develop cultural branding and certification as marketing tools; and (d) scientific research into improving T. ferdinandiana fruit yields and production methods, based on improved resource management and efficient processing methods.

Four Footed Pharmacists: Indications of Self-Medicating Livestock in Karamoja, Uganda

Abstract: Four Footed Pharmacists: Indications of Self-Medicating Livestock in Karamoja, Uganda.Following observations of goats’ possible self-medication browsing the anti-parasitic plant, Albizia anthelmintica, an ethnobotanical survey was undertaken to examine whether livestock engage in other self-medicating behaviors, and if people also use the same medications. Information was gathered over a five-month period from 147 Karamojong pastoralists and healers using a checklist of questions. There were 124 observations for 50 proposed self-medicating behaviors, primarily eating plants, to treat a total of 35 disease conditions. Of the plant species, 72% were also prepared by informants to treat human or veterinary diseases. Species importance was estimated by four factors: >3 user citations, informant consensus factor >0.4, fidelity level >40% and presence in the local pharmacopoeia. Eight species fulfilled all of these factors, and 12 had at least three. These results provide support for the hypothesis that animals graze specific plants when ill and suggest that people have developed some of their knowledge through animal observation.

A Review of Perceptual Distinctiveness in Landraces Including an Analysis of How Its Roles Have Been Overlooked in Plant Breeding for Low-Input Farming Systems

Abstract: A Review of Perceptual Distinctiveness in Landraces Including an Analysis of How Its Roles Have Been Overlooked in Plant Breeding for Low-Input Farming Systems. Traits providing perceptual distinctiveness (PD), which allow less commercial farmers in developing countries to recognize and name individual landraces, enable the creation and management of their diversity and the transfer of knowledge of each to other farmers and succeeding generations. Worldwide examples illustrate how PD traits on seeds and vegetative propagules help maintain genetic purity and provide markers at planting time, identifying landraces suitable for planting at particular locations and times and for future household and market needs. PD traits on the yield also enable household members and customers to identify and value landraces for different uses. To fulfill these roles, they are generally highly salient, restricted in number, environment-independent, qualitatively inherited, generally with expression based on one or a few genes, and often culturally significant. Even so, they are seldom mentioned as varietal selection criteria by farmers, who may be unaware of their importance, or in plant breeding programs and in situ conservation of plant genetic resources projects; the need for national variety release committees and policymakers in developing countries to include them is emphasized.

Traditional Knowledge and Management of Feijoa (Acca sellowiana) in Southern Brazil

Abstract: Traditional Knowledge and Management of Feijoa (Acca sellowiana) in Southern Brazil. This paper investigates traditional knowledge of the use and management of Acca sellowiana in southern Brazil. Fifty-six informants from three rural communities were assigned to one of four subgroups (“maintainers,” “managers,” “cultivators,” or “users”) based on their responses regarding management and use of A. sellowiana. Traditional knowledge related to use of this species is widespread among rural residents, but traditional knowledge related to management is fragmented depending on whether one uses, manages, or cultivates the species. Knowledge held in rural communities suggests that A. sellowiana could play an expanded role in local economies as well as biodiversity conservation. We suggest that participatory research could stimulate greater local use as well as on-farm conservation of A. sellowiana.

Valuation of forests and plant species in Indigenous Territory and National Park Isiboro-Sécure, Bolivia.

Abstract: Valuation of Forests and Plant Species in Indigenous Territory and National Park Isiboro-Secure, Bolivia. A quantitative ethnobotanical study was conducted in Indigenous Territory and National Park Isiboro-Secure (TIPNIS), Bolivia, to assess the usefulness assigned by local Yuracare and Trinitario ethnic groups to different terra firme and floodplain forests. Furthermore, we investigated which variables are good predictors for the use value attributed to plant species in the research area. Plants were collected during transect, walk-in-the-woods and homegarden sampling. Ethnobotanical and ethnoecological data of the inventoried plants were obtained from 12 Yuracare and 14 Trinitario participants through semistructured interviews. On average, 84% of species in transects were claimed to be useful to people. The understorey (2.5 cm ≤ dbh < 10 cm) of the sampled forest types contained more useful species than the overstorey (dbh ≥ 10 cm), particularly for species with a medicinal and/or social use function. The local use value of plant species can be predicted, in part, from their botanical family, growth form, density, frequency, mean and maximum dbh, and ecological importance value. Our data confirm the hypothesis that density and frequency of plants in the landscape are both related to perceived plant accessibility. Accessibility of plants partly seems to guide their usefulness in TIPNIS. Indigenous assessment of accessibility and abundance of plants also covaried with their perceived usefulness and therefore has a potential for uncovering patterns in the perceived utility of plants.

Traditional Management and Morphological Patterns of Myrtillocactus schenckii (Cactaceae) in the Tehuacán Valley, Central Mexico1

Abstract: Traditional Management and Morphological Patterns of Myrtillocactus schenckii (Cactaceae) in the Tehuacan Valley, Central Mexico Myrtillocactus schenckii is a columnar cactus endemic to central Mexico and appreciated for its edible fruit. In the Tehuacan Valley it occurs wild in thorn-scrub forests, but it is also under silviculture management—tolerate in agroforestry systems and cultivated in home gardens. Ethnobotanical and morphometric studies were conducted to document its use and management forms, as well as consequences of artificial selection on morphological patterns in managed populations. In silviculture populations artificial selection occurs through selective tolerance of the phenotypes producing more, larger, and sweeter fruits, whereas in home gardens people plant branches of the preferred phenotypes. Morphological differences were found especially in fruit size and production, the main targets of artificial selection. The highest average values of fruit size and production were found in cultivated populations (0.993 cm3 and 204.45 fruits per branch, respectively), intermediate in silviculture populations (0.819 cm3 and 70.63 fruits per branch), and the lowest in the wild (0.68 cm3 and 59.75 fruits per branch). Multivariate statistical analyses differentiated populations according to their management type. Morphological diversity was higher in managed populations (0.703 ± 0.029 and 0.679 ± 0.019 in silviculture and cultivated populations, respectively) than in the wild (0.652 ± 0.016). Managed plants of M. schenckii do not show signs of depending on humans for survival and reproduction and, therefore, domestication should be considered incipient.

Ta Chòrta: A Comparative Ethnobotanical-Linguistic Study of Wild Food Plants in a Graecanic Area in Calabria, Southern Italy

Abstract: Ta Chorta: A Comparative Ethnobotanical-Linguistic Study of Wild Food Plants in a Graecanic Area in Calabria, Southern Italy. In the Mediterranean basin, with a manifold biocultural history, traditional knowledge is an important element of rural life. The use of food plants, for example, is a practice that has developed over generations and is part of the traditional knowledge system. However, for methodological reasons, the historical development of plant use is difficult to ascertain in cultures which rely on the oral transmission of knowledge. Here we discuss the antiquity of non-cultivated food plant use in the Graecanic area in Calabria, Southern Italy. We compare today’s gathered food plants in this ethnic Greek community with non-cultivated food plant use in modern and classical Greece using linguistic-historical methods. Fourteen cognates have been found, such as Portulaca oleracea (purslane), which is called andracla in the Graecanic area in Southern Italy and andrakla in Greece. The young leaves of purslane are used as salad in both areas. Plants with such cognates are likely to have been used in the study region as vegetables, salads, or condiments since the time Magna Graecia flourished in Southern Italy more than 2,000 years ago.

Ethnobotany of horseradish (Armoracia rusticana, Brassicaceae) and its wild relatives (Armoracia spp.): reproductive biology and local uses in their native ranges.

Abstract: Ethnobotany of Horseradish (Armoracia rusticana, Brassicaceae) and Its Wild Relatives (Armoracia spp.): Reproductive Biology and Local Uses in Their Native Ranges. Horseradish (Armoracia rusticana) has been cultivated for its root for over 2,000 years. Today, commercial production takes place primarily in North America and Europe where A. rusticana is propagated exclusively vegetatively. Like many vegetatively-propagated crops, cultivated A. rusticana plants are generally sterile. Armoracia rusticana is one of three species in the genus: A. macrocarpa is native to the Central Danube River Basin, A. rusticana is putatively native to Eastern Europe, and A. sisymbrioides is native to Siberia. Documenting the ways in which the three Armoracia species are used in their putative native ranges and the reproductive biology of Armoracia in these regions will advance understanding of the role of humans in the evolution of sterility in A. rusticana. In this broad-scale ethnobotanical analysis, we document 1) which Armoracia species are used in different geographic regions, 2) the reproductive biology of cultivated and natural Armoracia populations, and 3) the uses of Armoracia species in their native areas. Fieldwork was conducted in Austria, Bulgaria, Romania, and Russia. Ethnobotanical data were collected through written questionnaires. In all areas visited, A. rusticana is the primary Armoracia species; however, there is regional variation in the way the plant is used. Armoracia rusticana is propagated vegetatively and is not found in the wild. Armoracia macrocarpa and A. sisymbrioides reproduce by seed in nature. These data provide an understanding of contemporary uses and management strategies of Armoracia species in their native ranges, demonstrate the differential reproductive biology of a clonally-propagated crop relative to its wild progenitors, and emphasize the importance of ethnobotanical data collection for crops and their wild relatives from a broad geographic range.

Archaeological Evidence of the Cultural Importance of Agave spp . in Pre-Hispanic Colima, Mexico

Abstract: Archaeological Evidence of the Cultural Importance of Agave spp . in Pre-Hispanic Colima, Mexico. Production of agave-based food and fermented alcoholic beverages was highly relevant culturally and socially in pre-European contact western Mesoamerica. It has been hypothesized that agave distillation in western Mexico began in Colima in the early Colonial Era through adaptation of introduced Filipino techniques. Archaeological evidence is presented confirming the cultural and social significance of agave in Colima before contact, one of the fundamental conditions supporting this hypothesis. An analysis of circular subterranean stone structures in residential and ceremonial contexts (Classic and Postclassic periods: 200–1500 common era [CE]), and a comparison with stone ovens currently used to cook agave for the creation of spirits, indicate these structures were probably used for preparing food, including agave. Analysis of funerary ceramic vessel offerings with agave images (Colima phase: 400–600 CE) are reported for the first time. Their characteristics, and those of the associated burials and tombs, suggest those buried were agave growers or alcoholic beverage producers who fulfilled relevant roles in the society. Most of the agave images probably represent Agave angustifolia Lem and its cultivation. During the Colonial Era, the cultural and social relevance of agaves almost disappeared in Colima, possibly due to drastic reductions in the native human population, changing land use practices, and prohibitions against the production and sale of native alcoholic beverages.

Distillation in Western Mesoamerica before European contact.

Abstract: Distillation in Western Mesoamerica before European Contact. Fermented beverages are almost universal among ancient human societies. Ethanol is an analgesic, disinfectant, and mind-altering substance, and can help to preserve and enhance the nutritional value of food. Fermentation has therefore played a key role in human cultural and technological development. In Mesoamerica, codices and colonial-era sources describe a variety of fermented beverages produced before European contact. Distilled beverages, in contrast, have not been invented in all cultures, and their production in pre-contact Mesoamerica remains controversial. We tested the hypothesis of Needham et al. (1980) that Capacha gourd and trifid vessels described by Kelly (1974) for the Early Formative (1500–1000 BCE) in Colima state, western Mexico, could have been used to produce distilled beverages. Experiments using vessel replicas, techniques, and materials (including agave ferment) available in this region during this period successfully produced ethanol-containing distillates. We propose the possible origin and development of a “Capacha-type Mesoamerican still” from bean pots or from steamer pots used during this period, and discuss the possible production of spirits as part of the prevailing agricultural and cultural system. Average gourd and trifid vessel sizes, their archaeological context, and the ethanol yields of the replicas suggest that, if used as stills, they were used to produce a prestige product for ceremonial purposes, with high social and cultural relevance.

Use of Capsicum frutescens L. by the Indigenous Peoples of Taiwan and the Batanes Islands

Abstract: Use of Capsicum frutescens L by the Indigenous Peoples of Taiwan and the Batanes Islands The local nomenclature, use, and distribution of C frutescens among indigenous peoples in Taiwan and the Batanes Islands were studied Among Taiwanese indigenous peoples, the distribution, frequency of use, and importance of C frutescens were found to increase with decreasing latitude, which appears to have affected the local names of Capsicum and C frutescens The local name for Capsicum in the Batanes Islands—“sili”—is used by several indigenous peoples in Taiwan, suggesting that Capsicum was brought from the south to the north Indigenous peoples in Taiwan and the Batanes Islands used C frutescens fruits as condiments, medicines, ornaments, or for ritual uses; also, they used its leaves for soup A complex of both green and yellowish-green types possessing ShDH-B was introduced from Indonesia into the Batanes Islands and Taiwan, and later only the type with yellowish-green immature fruit was introduced to the Ryukyu Islands under the bottleneck effect

In situ Management and Patterns of Morphological Variation of Ceiba aesculifolia subsp. parvifolia (Bombacaceae) in the Tehuacán-Cuicatlán Valley

Abstract: In situManagement and Patterns of Morphological Variation ofCeiba aesculifoliasubsp.parvifolia(Bombacaceae) in the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Valley. Archaeological studies in Mexico’s Tehuacan Valley that were conducted during the 1960s revealed that the prehistoric use of “pochote” Ceiba aesculifolia was mainly for its edible roots and seeds. Recent ethnobotanical studies in the villages of Coxcatlan, San Rafael, and San Jose Tilapa, municipality of Coxcatlan, Puebla, documented that currently seeds are the most important plant parts of this tree used in the region. Local people recognize three morphological types of pochote trees: the purple-reddish, the pale green, and the dark-green reddish fruit variants, the first two being preferred because of their larger and more abundant seeds. This study documents the patterns of morphological variation of C. aesculifolia in human-managed and unmanaged populations in the communities just mentioned in order to analyze whether management has been directed to favor abundance of morphological types preferred by people. The main morphological types named by people were characterized by morphometric studies, and their frequencies in populations under different management intensity were evaluated through vegetation sampling. The morphometric studies corroborated that the morphological types recognized by people are identifiable groups, whereas vegetation sampling revealed that pochote variants preferred by people (the purple-reddish fruit type) were relatively more abundant in human-managed areas than in natural vegetation. This information suggests the occurrence of artificial selection associated with in situ management of this plant species.

Taro (Colocasia esculenta [L.] Schott) cultivation in vertical wet-dry environments: farmers' techniques and cultivar diversity in southwestern Ethiopia.

Abstract: Taro(Colocasia esculenta[L.] Schott) Cultivation in Vertical Wet-Dry Environments: Farmers’ Techniques and Cultivar Diversity in Southwestern Ethiopia. Taro (Colocasia esculenta [L.] Schott) is a food crop that was domesticated in Asia and the Pacific region and is now grown in the humid tropics. Following its arrival in Africa in ancient times, it may have adapted to the drier environments. In this ethnographic study, I present a particular case of taro cultivation and uses by a group of farmers in the mountains of southwestern Ethiopia. There are 36 named cultivars of taro for which diversity is maintained through different cultivation techniques and culinary practices in wet and dry environments that vary in elevation. Because taro in dry lowland environments has recently been replaced by the introduction of new crops, it is possible that the drought-tolerant eddoe-type cultivars, which are traditionally dominant in Africa, are now in danger of disappearing.

Sacred Giants: depiction of Bombacoideae on Maya ceramics in Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize.

Abstract: Sacred Giants: Depiction of the Malvaceae Subfamily Bombacoideae on Maya Ceramics in Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize This study categorized and identified plants depicted on Maya ceramics from the Classic Period (250 a.d.–900 a.d.). We chose art objects with a predominance of iconographic images of Malvaceae subfamily Bombacoideae, which are easily identified morphologically and have culinary, medicinal, ceremonial, economic, and cosmological significance to the Maya. Among ten species of Bombacoideae native to the Southern Lowlands region of Central America (Belize, parts of Guatemala, and Mexico), the Maya utilized at least six, which also have Maya names. We observed four or five bombacoid species depicted on Maya ceramics; most images were identifiable to genus. Burial urns and incensarios (incense burners) commonly had images of trunk spines of Ceiba pentandra, the Maya “World Tree.” Flowers of Pseudobombax ellipticum, a plant used to make ceremonial beverages, were most similar to floral images portrayed on vessels, bowls, and plates, although the morphologically similar flowers of Pachira aquatica may also be depicted. Plants representing Quararibea funebris or Q. guatemalteca, which were used during preparation of cacao beverages, were discernable on drinking vessels.

Illegal Palm Heart ( Geonoma edulis ) Harvest in Costa Rican National Parks: Patterns of Consumption and Extraction

Abstract: Illegal Palm Heart (Geonoma edulis) Harvest in Costa Rican National Parks: Patterns of Consumption and Extraction. Illegal extraction of non-timber forest products in the tropics is widespread, and many protected areas face the challenge of balancing conservation needs with cultural practices related to the use and extraction of animals and plants. We studied the illegal wild palm heart extraction of Geonoma edulis, locally known as surtuba, in Volcan Poas and Braulio Carrillo National Parks in Costa Rica. Through 96 questionnaires administered in three communities bordering these national parks, and by semistructured interviews with poachers and park managers, this study examined extraction and consumption motives, patterns, and frequencies. This palm is sought out by the communities for use during Holy Week to satisfy cultural traditions, for its associated nutritive value, and because of its unique bitter flavor, not comparable to domesticated palm heart. Whereas the majority of the respondents consume it during Holy Week (55.2%), a substantial number (27.1%) consume G. edulis palm heart at least once a month. The majority extract once a year (58%); however, a minority (2.1%) rely on G. edulis for economic subsistence. This accounts for 72.6% of the reported extraction (over 4,500 palms per year) and is supplying a year-round market for nontraditional use. Our results show that what most likely began as a cultural tradition has become an uncontrolled, nontraditional source of income. Additional efforts should determine the feasibility of limited extraction outside protected areas to satisfy traditional use. Such an effort entails the decentralization of biodiversity policies and innovative methods to implement protective measures, as well as incentives for community involvement in the management of this palm heart species.

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.): Old Varieties are Reflected in Works of Art

Abstract: Grapevine (Vitis viniferaL.): Old Varieties Are Reflected in Works of Art. The northwest of the Iberian Peninsula is home to a number of ancient grapevine varieties now in danger of extinction, regarding which the literature contains only a few references, dating from the 19th century. In this region, baroque religious art, which is commonly ornamented with grapevine motifs, achieved great importance. This work reports the ampelographic comparison of the leaves of 19 old grapevine varieties from this region with those represented on 42 baroque altarpieces. Many of the latter were found to be ampelographically correct representations of grapevine leaves; in some cases they showed such similarity to these old varieties that their cultivation at the time when the corresponding sculptures were made can be confirmed. A larger study may therefore help determine when other varieties were cultivated in the past.

Lianas and Livelihoods: The Role of Fibrous Forest Plants in Food Security and Society around Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda

Abstract: Lianas and Livelihoods: The Role of Fibrous Forest Plants in Food Security and Society around Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda This paper documents the role that fibrous plants play in rural economies of farming communities in southwestern Uganda. Thirty-five plant species from 20 plant families are used to weave baskets, stretchers, granaries, and protective coverings for clay pots. These products play a crucial role in local culture, the local economy, and social institutions as well as in food security due to their use in carrying, processing, or storing crops. Lianas (Loeseneriella apocynoides, Smilax anceps, and to a lesser extent, Cyphostemma bambuseti, Flabellaria paniculata, Hippocratea odongensis, Salacia elegans, and Urera hypselodendron) are the most important plant life-forms used, followed by bamboo (Sinarundinaria alpina). The extent of use of plant species for granaries varied significantly with altitude, vegetation type, and land-cover across the wide altitudinal range of the study area (1,440–2,600 m asl). Granaries used by farmers at lower altitudes used a higher diversity of species compared to those at a higher altitude, where 82% of granaries were constructed from bamboo (Sinarundinaria alpina). Tightly woven, durable granaries are important for food storage and therefore to the food security and sustainable livelihoods of subsistence farmers. Where length, strength, and durability of weaving fibers were required, such as for stretchers (engozi) used as local “ambulances,” only two liana species were favored. The most commonly used species was the forest liana Loeseneriella apocynoides (Celastraceae), used for up to 77% of engozi stretchers and 83% of tea-picking baskets. While most species are abundant and can be sustainably harvested, L. apocynoides is overexploited, posing problems for local people and the national park.

Ilex Vomitoria Ait. (Yaupon): A Native North American Source of a Caffeinated and Antioxidant-Rich Tea

Abstract: Ilex VomitoriaAit. (Yaupon): A Native North American Source of a Caffeinated and Antioxidant-Rich Tea. Yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria Ait.) is a caffeine-containing shrub native to the southeastern United States where its leaves and twigs were traditionally used to prepare a stimulating and healthful beverage by Amerindians and more recent colonists. For a variety of mostly socioeconomic and cultural reasons, widespread consumption of yaupon tea ceased by the late 19th century, but the species is widely used in ornamental horticulture. Given the environmental damage associated with other caffeine crops, we believe that disuse of this species is unfortunate, and we report on traits that consumers may consider valuable. We found that total foliar biomass, caffeine, and antioxidant production all increased with nitrogen fertilization in one common ornamental yaupon cultivar, ‘Nana.’ Increasing light availability was associated with increased antioxidant activity but not with the decreased caffeine production predicted by the carbon/nutrient balance hypothesis for secondary metabolite production. We also found the highest caffeine concentrations in another yaupon cultivar, ‘Pendula,’ but suggest that the wide range of chemical variation offered by wild-type yaupon populations renders them more suitable as sources for the development of high caffeine-producing varieties. The results of this study suggest that yaupon is a viable caffeine alternative for North Americans living within its range on the southeastern coastal plain.

The Quantum Co-Evolution Unit: An Example of ‘Awa (Kava— Piper methysticum G. Foster) in Hawaiian Culture

Abstract: The Quantum Co-Evolution Unit: An Example of 'Awa (Kava—Piper methysticum G. Foster) in Hawaiian Culture. The process of co-evolution occurs in many kinds of relationships and on various scales. One example of a co-evolutionary relationship is that of a plant and a culture with which it interacts. Such relationships are dynamic and ever changing. Researchers have discussed this concept and its implications for decades, yet no quantifiable unit or sta- ndardized scale has been accepted with which to measure this change. The theoretical "qu- antum co-evolution unit" (QCU) is proposed as the smallest measurable scale of interactions between plants and people. A collection of QCUs for a linked plant and human population would be its "ethnobotanical population." This could be measured at various points in time to quantify the changing relationships between plants and people. These models set up a stru- cture to discuss methodologies for quantifying co-evolutionary relationships such as are seen in the evolution of ethnobotanical populations. The co-evolving relationship between 'awa (kava—Piper methysticum) and Hawaiian culture is used as an example to illustrate this idea.

Tulips: An Ornamental Crop in the Andalusian Middle Ages

Abstract: Tulips: An Ornamental Crop in the Andalusian Middle Ages. The authors are working on the project “Crop Flora of al-Andalus,” which aims to recover the crop diversity of the Middle Ages in western Europe during the Islamic period. The documental sources of this study are all the agricultural treatises written in this territory and culture between the 10th and 14th centuries. Al-Andalus was the territory occupied by Islam between the 8th and 15th centuries, varying over time on varying regions on the Iberian Peninsula. In this period, a genuine agricultural revolution took place, as well as the incorporation into the Western world of many Eastern agricultural species. When we focused on the study of ornamental species used in gardens, courtyards, and houses, tulips could be identified in several texts, the main one being the ‘Umda, a botanical work written at the end of the 11th century or beginning of the 12th, probably by the agronomist Abu l-Jayr. Tulips are mentioned in this text 500 years before the first known references to their introduction into Europe, traditionally asserted to be from the Ottoman Empire to Holland via Austria, always in the 16th century. Thus the route of these ornamental bulbs in their passage from East to West must be modified.

Variation and Standardization in the Use of a Chinese Medicinal Moss

Abstract: Variation and Standardization in the Use of a Chinese Medicinal Moss.Huixincao (Rhodobryum (Schimp.) Limpr.) is a medicinal moss used for minor heart problems throughout Yunnan province by many of the different minority groups that live there. To study variation in the use of this plant, we conducted interviews with herb sellers and collectors in different areas of Yunnan province. Components of herbal prescriptions that included Huixincao were used as a proxy to quantify variation in use and knowledge of this medicinal moss. According to this method, variation in the use of Huixincao is not correlated with gender, occupation, or ethnicity, but instead appears to be structured by geography. The use of herbs like Huixincao is, to some degree, standardized across both geographical and cultural contexts through the force of widely available herb books published in the 1970s. These books were published as part of China’s directive to enhance the medical system in rural areas and to develop knowledge about Chinese herbs. The books have also allowed for standardized knowledge about this medicinal moss to be translated across very different cultural contexts, ranging from rural areas to traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) hospitals and medical colleges.

Amazon River Fruits: Flavors for Conservation (Frutos del Río Amazonas: Sabores para la Conservación)

Abstract: Humans have cultivated apples for millennia, and there are thousands of cultivars. This joins similar books for the general reader: the time is ripe for an update on the origin of the sweet apple, currently called Malus pumila. Earlier books in this genre antedate recent developments. The bibliography is best part of the book, 390 entries, with 58 pre-1800 entries, and 75 from 2000 onward. Sloppy editing mars it, however: German capitalizations are botched, some authors’ names are misordered. British editions of some recent titles are cited, which may make finding them difficult in U.S. libraries, e.g., Browning (1999) is titled Apples is the U.S. and dates from 1998; Sanders (1988) is The Apple Book. Nice features are the abundant, long quotes from earlier literature and translations: e.g., grafting from Qi Min Yao Shu, a Chinese scroll from the mid-sixth century B.C.E. The index disappoints: it contains only English and Latin names for animals and plants, but is incomplete, e.g., Pomoïdeae, Sorbus terminalis, S. florentina inter alia are missing. About one-third of the index lists apple cultivars, most receiving just passing mention in the text. The text itself contains enough surprising or incorrect statements to make one suspicious of the whole. “The honeybee . . . may indeed have originated in the area,” i.e., Tian Shan (p. 26). Though A. mellifera subsp. pomonella, not mentioned here, was recently described from there, the honeybee originated in Africa. In a list of cultivars “. . . British examples include . . . ‘Stark’s Earliest’ . . .” (p. 67), from Idaho fide at least two of the authors’ references. “Grafting was not widely practiced [sic] in the Americas in the 17th and 18th centuries . . .” (p. 157). Yet many cultivars, which would have had to be grafted, were widely planted by the early 1700s, e.g., Rhode Island Greening. Confusingly, the authors noted this (p. 151). Mesopotamia is mislabeled on Map 8. “[V]ery few American apples were listed specifically for cider making” (p. 157), yet one in six cultivars in the seminal American pomona (Coxe 1817) are cider apples. The book is marred by the inclusion of irrelevant or highly speculative sections: the long discussion of camels concludes that their efficacy in distributing apple seeds is dubious (p. 78). Regarding dung beetles, although “nothing seems to be known” about their occurrence in the Tian Shan, or for that matter their involvement in the dispersal of apple seeds, there is a long discussion of them (p. 78–80). The core of the book is Origin of the apple (Chap. 2). Summarizing that “morphological, biochemical and molecular variation within [the] wild apple indicates that the earliest selections of domesticated apples could have come directly from the wild apple, without the involvement of other species.” This is contrary to earlier hypotheses, which postulated extensive, early hybridization. The quote is from Harris et al. (2002:429), which, though listed in the references, appears without attribution in large part (p. 53). Surprisingly, large parts of the first few pages of Chap. 2 are taken verbatim or nearly verbatim from Harris et al. (2002), though without comparing the texts, one would not know this. The story of the apple continues to unfold. Unfortunately, this does not tell it well. Harris et al. (2002), whose bibliography is repeated, with one omission, here, is a better update. Juniper (2007) supplements Harris et al. with more geological and evolutionary information.

A Mouthful of Diversity: Knowledge of Cider Apple Cultivars in the United Kingdom and Northwest United States

Abstract: A Mouthful of Diversity: Knowledge of Cider Apple Cultivars in the United Kingdom and Northwest United States. There is a general assumption in the study of folk taxonomy that those people who have been interacting with a given crop the longest have the most knowledge about the crop’s names. We treated this as an hypothesis which can be tested with knowledge of cider apples. This use of apples extends back many generations in some places, while in other regions people are just learning to make cider. The experimental design is to assess quantitatively the cider apple diversity being used compared to the knowledge of this diversity by cider makers. The test involves two populations of cider makers: those who come from a long-standing tradition of cider making and those who recently learned to make cider. Research was conducted in parts of England, Wales, Northern Ireland, and Washington State, U.S.A. Semistructured interviews and questionnaires were used to elicit cider apple variety names. Traditional knowledge associated with cider production was also collected. Eighty-two cider apple variety names were obtained. In addition, it is estimated that between 111 and 328 varieties were recognized but could not be named. There was a significant difference between the cider apple cultivars that cider makers could name and those that they could discern. On average, cider makers could name eight varieties, but discern 16 varieties of cider apples largely on the basis of appearance, taste, and smell. There was no significant difference in the knowledge of cider apple variety names between long-standing cider makers and those that recently learned to make cider. As with cider apples, we would expect that farmers of other culturally-significant crops would not always know named diversity if there are other cues to let them track varietal difference, such as appearance, taste, or smell.

A Comparative Analysis of Nineteenth Century Pharmacopoeias in the Southern United States: A Case Study Based on the Gideon Lincecum Herbarium1

Abstract: A Comparative Analysis of Nineteenth Century Pharmacopoeias in the Southern United States: A Case Study Based on the Gideon Lincecum Herbarium. The Gideon Lincecum Herbarium represents the pharmacopoeia of Dr. Gideon Lincecum, a botanical physician practicing in Mississippi and Texas during the first half of the nineteenth century. The herbarium contains 313 specimens representing 309 species, 242 genera, and 96 families, and includes ethnobotanical annotations for 286 medicinal taxa. The collection data provided by Lincecum indicate that the specimens were collected between 1835 and 1852. With the exception of 22 specimens considered by Campbell (1951), this is the first study to place this pharmacopoeia in a historical context. Taxonomic determinations of the herbarium specimens were confirmed or corrected. Comparative analyses were conducted to investigate the relationship of Lincecum’s pharmacopoeia to those of six other medical traditions practiced in the southern United States during the nineteenth century. Cluster analyses based on Jaccard co-efficient placed the historical pharmacopoeias of medical traditions in the early nineteenth century into distinct Euro–American and American Indian groups. Despite the recognition of distinct allopathic and botanical medical traditions, an extensive overlap in the composition of their pharmacopoeias is observed. This may reflect the reliance of these traditions on allopathic principles and drugs of plant origin during the first half of the nineteenth century. In contrast, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, and Creek pharmacopoeias show limited overlap with each other in composition despite a long history of interaction between these groups. Lincecum’s pharmacopoeia shares a larger Jaccard co–efficient value with the Choctaw pharmacopoeia than would be expected based on their placement in distinct Euro–American and American Indian groups in the dendrogram. The large proportion of Lincecum’s citations that reference Choctaw informants provides direct evidence for the incorporation of Choctaw medical knowledge and taxa into Lincecum’s pharmacopoeia. These data suggest that the composition of historical pharmacopoeias is influenced by both contemporary medical practices and the regional and cultural contexts in which the pharmacopoeias are utilized.